Personal Occupations: Women's Responses to U.S. Military Occupations in Latin America
2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 72; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1111/j.1540-6563.2010.00271.x
ISSN1540-6563
Autores Tópico(s)Latin American and Latino Studies
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Alan McPherson is ConocoPhillips Chair in Latin American Studies and Associate Professor of International and Area Studies at the University of Oklahoma. He is the author of Yankee No! Anti‐Americanism in U.S.‐Latin American Relations and Intimate Ties, Bitter Struggles: The United States and Latin America since 1945. He would like to thank Roxanna Dunbar‐Ortiz and Marysa Navarro for reading versions of this article.NotesAlan McPherson is ConocoPhillips Chair in Latin American Studies and Associate Professor of International and Area Studies at the University of Oklahoma. He is the author of Yankee No! Anti‐Americanism in U.S.‐Latin American Relations and Intimate Ties, Bitter Struggles: The United States and Latin America since 1945. He would like to thank Roxanna Dunbar‐Ortiz and Marysa Navarro for reading versions of this article.1. “Woman,”El Dogal, 27 August 1921, as reproduced in Carl Kelsey, “The American Intervention in Haiti and the Dominican Republic,”Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 100, March 1922, 109–202: 187.2. April Mayes devotes the most pages to the occupation; see April Mayes, “Why Dominican Feminism Moved to the Right: Class, Colour and Women's Activism in the Dominican Republic, 1880s–1940s,” Gender & History 2, 2008, 349–71.Carolle Charles gives only a cursory view; see Carolle Charles, “Gender and Politics in Contemporary Haiti: The Duvalierist State, Transnationalism, and the Emergence of a New Feminism (1980–1990),” Feminist Studies 1, 1995, 135–64: 135.3. Mary Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation & the Culture of U.S. Imperialism 1915–1940, Chapel Hill, NC: U of North Carolina P, 2001. See also Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the U.S. Occupation of 1916–1924, Austin, TX: U of Texas P, 1984; Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1995 (first ed., 1971); Lauren Hutchinson Derby, “The Magic of Modernity: Dictatorship and Civic Culture in the Dominican Republic, 1916–1962,” unpubl. Ph.D. Diss., University of Chicago, 1998.4. See, for example, Mire Koikari, “Exporting Democracy? American Women, ‘Feminist Reforms’ and Politics of Imperialism in the U.S. Occupation of Japan, 1945–1952,” Frontiers 1, 2002, 23–45; Petra Goedde, GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender, and Foreign Relations, 1945–1949, New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2003; Lisa Yoneyama, “Liberation under Siege: U.S. Military Occupation and Japanese Women's Enfranchisement,”American Quarterly 3, 2005, 885–910; Paul Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, & the Philippines, Chapel Hill, NC: U. of North Carolina P., 2007.5. Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics, Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2000, 44–5, 54–9.6. Eileen Kuttab, “Palestinian Women in the Intifada: Fighting on Two fronts,” Arab Studies Quarterly 2, 1993, 69–86; Souad Dajani, “The Struggle of Palestinian Women in the Occupied Territories: Between National and Social Liberation,” Arab Studies Quarterly 2, 1994, 13–26.7. Nadje Al‐Ali and Nicola Pratt, What Kind of Liberation? Women and the Occupation of Iraq, Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2009.8. A few examples among many are Tulio Cestero, “American Rule in Santo Domingo,” The Nation, 17 July 1920, 78–9; Richard Grossman, “‘La Patria es nuestra madre’: Género, patriarcado y nacionalismo dentro del Movimiento Sandinista, 1927–1934,” unpublished paper presented at the Third Congreso Centroamericano de Historia, San José, Costa Rica, 15–18 July 1996, 16; Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, Ahora sé que Sandino manda, Managua: Editorial Nueva Nicaragua, 1986, 131; Roger Gaillard, Charlemagne Péralte le caco: 1918–1919, Port‐au‐Prince: R. Gaillard, 1982.9. Fabio Fiallo, “The Anguish,”La Tribuna (Managua), 6 February 1921, enclosed in 839.00/2390, Central Decimal Files Relating to Internal Affairs of the Dominican Republic, 1910–29, General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59 (hereafter RG 59), National Archives, College Park, Maryland (hereafter NARA II).10. José Ulises Franco, Nuestros grades patriotas y la intervención norteamericana del año 1916, Santiago: ANMI, 1984, 31.11. A more or less comprehensive list includes: for Haiti, Fernand Hibbert, Les Simulacres, Port‐au‐Prince: Atelier Fardin, 1974 (first ed.: 1923); Léon Laleau, Le Choc, Port‐au‐Prince: La Presse, 1932; Stéphen Alexis, Le Nègre Masqué, Port‐au‐Prince: Ed. Fardin, 1933; Cléanthe (Virgile)Valcin, La Blanche Négresse, Port‐au‐Prince: V. Valcin, 1934; Annie Desroy, Le Joug, Port‐au‐Prince: Imp. Modèle, 1934; and Maurice Casséus, Viejo, Nendeln: Kraus, 1970 (first ed., 1935); for the Dominican Republic, Horacio Read, Los civilizadores, Santo Domingo: Imprenta Altagracia, 1924; Rafael Damirón, ¡Ay de los vencidos!, Santo Domingo: Editora Alfa y Omega, 1925; and for Nicaragua, Hernán Robleto, Sangre en el trópico, Tenerife, Isla Canarias: Ediciones de Baile del Sol, 2000 (first ed.: 1930); Salomón de la Selva, La guerra de Sandino o pueblo desnudo, Managua, Nicaragua: Editorial Nueva Nicaragua, 1985, (first ed.: 1935). See the following note for two further plays.12. Neither of the plays has apparently survived, but José Narciso Solá, Matrimonio a lo americano of 1916, is mentioned by Calder, Impact, 13, and the anonymous Marriage Haïtiano‐américain of 1933 is discussed by Yvette Gindine in “Images of the American in Haitian Literature During the Occupation, 1915–1934,” Caribbean Studies 3, 1974, 37–52: 44.13. Plots and their meanings are discussed in detail in Gindine, “Images,” 37–52; J. Michael Dash, Haiti and the United States: National Stereotypes and the Literary Imagination, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997; Nancy J. Conrady, “Le Roman haïtien d'expression française et l'occupation américaine de 1915–1934: Trois décennies d'histoire vues par quatre romanciers haïtiens engagés (Stéphane Alexis, Annie Desroy, Léon Laleau, Mme Virgile Valcin),” unpubl. Ph.D. diss., Middlebury College French School, 1995; Nadève Ménard, “The Occupied Novel: The Representation of Foreigners in Haitian Novels Written During the US Occupation, 1915–1934,” unpubl. Ph.D. Diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2002.14. For example, see Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, Augusto C. Sandino, padre de la revolución popular sandinista y antimperialista, Managua: Nueva Nicaragua, 1985. It affirms, for instance, that Sandino's wife Blanca Araúz was seen aiming a rifle. See also, on the larger topic of women and revolution in Nicaragua, Helen Collison, ed., Women and Revolution in Nicaragua, London: Zed Books, 1990; Margaret Randall, Sandino's Daughters Revisited: Feminism in Nicaragua, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1994; Karen Kampwirth, Women & Guerrilla Movements: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas, Cuba, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State UP, 2002; and Karen Kampwirth, Feminism and the Legacy of Revolution: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas, Athens, OH: Ohio UP, 2004.15. H. Cavendish Venables, British Acting Consul, report, Managua, 20 October 1912, file A54926, reference 1308, Foreign Office 371, Public Record Office, Kew, UK.16. Captain Nelson P. Vulte, “Expedition to Nicaragua,”10 August 1912, folder Nicaragua‐1912, Nicaragua, Geographical Files, Reference Branch, Marine Corps History Division, Marine Corps Base, Quantico, Virginia.17. Cited in Smedley Butler, Old Gimlet Eye: The Adventures of Smedley D. Butler as told to Lowell Thomas, New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1933, 141.18. Calder, Impact, 125.19. James J. McLean, Director, memo to Commandant, GND, Santo Domingo, 7 May 1919, legajo 379, 1919, fondo Secretaría de Estado de Interior y Policía (hereafter SEIP), Archivo General de la Nación, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (hereafter AGN‐DR).20. Third Lieutenant R.W. Conkley, USMC, memorandum to Commanding Officer, Dos Rios, 4 March 1919, folder Santo Domingo, Contacts, Reports of, box 2, Miscellaneous Collection of Records Relating to the Marine Occupation of Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic), 1916–1924, Records of the United States Marine Corps Record Group 127 (hereafter RG 127), National Archives Building, Washington, D.C. (hereafter NARA I).21. Ibid.22. Ibid.23. Marie Louise fils, letter to Charlemagne Péralte, Port‐au‐Prince, 15 July 1919, folder Bandit Activities and Descriptions, box 3, Records of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti, 1915–1934, RG 127, NARA I.24. Ibid.25. Leland Harrison, U.S. Minister, memo to Secretary of State, Montevideo, 29 August 1930, 817.00/6807, Central Decimal Files Relating to Internal Affairs of Nicaragua, 1930–1944, RG 59, NARA II.26. Grossman, “ ‘La Patria’,” 29n71. Confirming this is Natalia Altamirano viuda de Ortez, interviewed by Susana Morales, 12 and 13 August 1983, EDSNN‐71, Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, Centro de Historia Militar, Managua, Nicaragua (hereafter CHM‐N).27. Francisco Ceteño Fonseca, interviewed by Auxiliadora Rosales, 26 July 1983, EDSNN‐66; Anastacio Rodríguez Casco, interviewed by Auxiliadora Rosales, 21 September 1983, EDSNN‐80; Aurelio Osoba Izaguerri, interviewer unknown, 6 July 1983, EDSNN‐57, all Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, CHM‐N.28. My translation. Angelina Rugama interviewed by Julio Cineros, April 1983, EDSNN‐46, Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, CHM‐N. Confirming women's non‐participation as insurgents is Apolinar Hernández, interviewed by Auxiliadora Rosales, 13 May 1982, EDSNN‐43, Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, CHM‐N.29. José Román, Maldito país, Managua: El Pez y la Serpiente, 1983, 141.30. Hamilton M. H. Fleming, Chief of Police, memo to Commanding Officer, National Penitentiary, Managua, 18 June 1930, folder Law Sect. Political Prisoners 6 Mar–11 Jul 30, box 34, Headquarters, Historical Section, Records Relating to Marine Corps Units in Nicaragua, 1927–1933, RG 127, NARA I.31. Captain Charles G. Knoechel, Guardia Nacional Dominicana, memo to Director, Department of the North, Santiago, 4 June 1918, legajo 20, 1920–1921, fondo Gobierno Militar, AGN‐DR.32. Calder, Impact, 147.33. Román, Maldito país, 69.34. Eric Hobsbawm, Bandits, New York: The New Press, 2000, 146.35. Mathilde Zimmermann, Sandinista: Carlos Fonseca and the Nicaraguan Revolution, Durham, NC: Duke UP, 2000, 154.36. Román, Maldito país, 85.37. Armando Amador, Sandino y la derrota militar de los Estados Unidos en Nicaragua, Mexico City: Federación Editorial Mexicana, 1987, 61; Comisión de Información de la Representación en Cuba, del Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, Gustavo Machado nos habla de Augusto C. Sandino, n.p.: c. 1976, 7.38. Major Otto Salzman, Guardia Nacional, memorandum for B‐2, Managua, 27 June 1930, folder Nicaragua—Bandits, Activities of, box 18, Operations and Training Division, Intelligence Section, 1915–1934, RG 127, NARA I.39. Major Fred T. Cruse, intelligence report, San José, 12 April 1929, 817.00/6305, Central Decimal Files Relating to Internal Affairs of Nicaragua, 1910–1929, RG 59, NARA II.40. My translation. Augusto Sandino letter to Blanca Araúz de Sandino, San Rafael del Norte, 6 October 1927, E‐001, C‐001, 000427, Collección ACS (Augusto César Sandino), CHM‐N.41. Sofonías Salvatierra, Sandino, o la tragedia de un pueblo, Madrid: n. p., 1934, 54; “Nicaragua: Lieut. Big Feet,”Time, 25 February 1928, 27.42. Captain Herman Hanneken, Commanding Officer, memo to Department Commander, Department of the North, Headquarters troops in the field, Le Trou, 20 January 1919 [probably 1920], folder Bandits‐Rpts of Operations against, box 4, Records of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti, 1915–1934, RG 127, NARA I.43. Jefferson Caffery, U.S. Legation, to Secretary of State Frank Kellogg, San Salvador, 18 January 1928, 817.00/5362, Central Decimal Files Relating to Internal Affairs of Nicaragua, 1910–1929, RG 59, NARA II.44. Joseph Baylen, “Sandino: Patriot or Bandit?,”The Hispanic American Historical Review 3, 1951, 418.45. Others have accused Sandinista men of forcing women to cook and clean for them; see for example David Clark Brooks, “Rebellion from Without: Culture and Politics along Nicaragua's Atlantic Coast in the Time of the Sandino Revolt, 1926–1934,” unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 1998, 269–70.46. Grossman, “‘La Patria’,” 35.47. Zimmermann, Sandinista, 149.48. Engracia Uriarte, interviewed by Susana Morales, 22 August 1983, EDSNN‐82, Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo, CHM‐N.49. Captain F. D. Strong, USMC, memo to B‐2, 2nd Brigade, Managua, 4 March 1928, folder “Matagalpa”3 of 3, box 4, General Correspondence of the 2nd Brigade, 1928–30, RG 127, NARA I.50. Virtudes Álvarez bemoans that women have been largely absent from Dominican historiography “because of the machista nature of that historiography” (see Virtudes Álvarez, Mujeres del 16, Santo Domingo: Mediabyte, 2005, 13).51. Frances Hasso, Resistance, Repression, and Gender Politics in Occupied Palestine and Jordan, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 2005.52. Mayes, “Dominican Feminism,” 351.53. Ana Teresa Paradas, “En respuesto de una falsa imputación,”El Siglo (Santo Domingo), 22 March 1922, in Arístides Incháustegui and Blanca Delgado Malagón, eds., Vetilio Alfau Durán en Anales: escritos y documentos, Santo Domingo: Banco de Reservas, 1997, 652–3.54. U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, second section, group V, The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic 1916 to 1922: A Case History, New York: 14 August 1943, (MS) F1938.45 U58, box 37, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford, California, 42.55. Calder, Impact, 88; Mayes, “Dominican Feminism,” 357; Kelsey, “American Intervention,” 170; Derby, “Magic of Modernity,” 55–6.56. El libro azul, 1920; reprint Santo Domingo: UASD, 1976, 63.57. My translation. Paradas, “En respuesto,” 652–3; author unknown, “Mentira Grosera,”El Cójelo, 25 March 1922, in Arístides Incháustegui and Blanca Delgado Malagón, eds, Vetilio Alfau Durán en Anales: escritos y documentos, Santo Domingo: Banco de Reservas, 1997. I write “apparently” because the World did not publish an issue on that day and did not publish this article for at least a month before or after that day. But clearly the article was published since it prompted a reaction.58. Ibid.59. Petronila Angélica Gómez, “Feminism,” trans. Daisy Cocco de Filippis, reprinted in Cocco de Filippis, ed., Documents of Dissidence, 39–44, esp. 42–3, as cited in Mayes, “Dominican Feminism,” 358.60. This speech of July 1925 can be found as Ercilia Pepín, “Diversas consideraciones relativas a la capacidad que tiene la mujer para adquirir una cultura integral en la misma intensidad que el hombre,” reprinted in William Galván, ed., Antología de Ercilia Pepín, Santo Domingo: Universitaria, 1986, 30–2, as cited in Mayes, “Dominican Feminism,” 358–9.61. Roberto Cassá, “Movimientos sociales durante la intervención militar norteamericana en República Dominicana,”Ecos 8, 1998, 177–206: 202.62. Comittee of Ladies for Santo Domingo, letter to Director of La Hora, New York, 6 November 1919, legajo 15, 1920, fondo SEIP, AGN‐DR. The committee soon was composed of Julia P. McGrigor, Catherine P. de Cocco, Isabel López, Mercedes Benedicto, Mercedes Mota, and Alicia de Cestero.63. Alicia de Cestero et al., letter to Editor, The Sun and Herald (New York), 3 May 1920, legajo Papeles 1919–1920, Tomo 1, Archivo de Tulio Cestero, Fondo Antiguo, Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (hereafter UASD‐DR).64. Rosa de Noel Henríquez M., et al., Al pueblo dominicano, pamphlet collection, AGN‐DR, 4.65. Major Earl H. Ellis, USMC, Brigade Intelligence Officer, summary of intelligence, 31 July 1920, folder D‐28 Dominican Rep. Intelligence Summaries, box 8, Operations and Training Division, Intelligence Section, 1915–1934, RG 127, NARA I. Others estimated that up to $300,000 were raised or at least pledged.66. “Acuerdos Importantes—La Asociación de Damas—Patriotismo en acción,”Listín Diario, 1 June 1920, legajo 54, 1921–1922, fondo Gobierno Militar, AGN‐DR.67. Ibid.68. My translation. De Noel, Al pueblo dominicano.69. My translation. “Varios Banielejos,” memo to Secretario de Estado de Interior y Policía, Baní, 2 July 1920, legajo 67, 1920, fondo SEIP, AGN‐DR.70. My translation. French Chargé d'Affaires Barré‐Ponsignon, letter to Minister of Foreign Affairs, Santo Domingo, 30 June 1920, dossier 2, République Dominicaine, Amérique 1918–1940, Correspondance Politique et Commerciale 1914–1940, Archives Diplomatiques, Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Paris, France.71. Ellis, summary of intelligence, 31 July 1920.72. The Spanish original is “por indicación.” Alicia de Cestero, letter to Tulio Cestero, New York, 1 February 1920, legajo Papeles 1919–1920, Tomo 1, Archivo de Tulio Cestero, Fondo Antiguo, UASD‐DR.73. Léon D. Pamphile, “The NAACP and the American Occupation of Haiti,”Phylon 1, 1986, 97.74. Le Nouvelliste, 13 March 1930, ascited in Garde d'Haiti, Extracts from the Newspapers, 14 March 1930, folder Garde News Digest, 1930 March 6–15, box 1070, President's Commission for Study and Review of Conditions in Haiti (hereafter President's Commission), Herbert Hoover Library, West Branch, Iowa (hereafter HHL).75. Georges Condé, La ville des Cayes, Port‐au‐Prince: Imprimeur II, 2002, 281.76. “Quize milles femmes debout réclament la libération du territoire,”Haïti‐Journal, 4 March 1930, 1.77. Ibid.78. Garde d'Haiti, Extracts from the Newspapers, 4 March 1930, folder Garde News Digest, 1930 March 1–5, box 1070, President's Commission, HHL.79. Harold Denny, “Haitian Women Pray That We Quit Island; Lead Liberty March,”New York Times, 3 March 1930, 1.80. My translation. Letter by Haitian women, Port‐au‐Prince, 4 March 1930, folder Recommendations and Suggestions Submitted to Commission, 1930 January‐March, box 1073, President's Commission, HHL.81. Cestero et al., letter, 3 May 1920.82. Anne Regis Winkler‐Morey, “Good Neighbors: Popular Internationalists and United States' Relations with Mexico and the Caribbean Region (1918–1929),” unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 2001, 200.83. Emily Greene Balch, ed., Occupied Haiti, New York: Garland, 1972 (first ed.: 1927).84. David Whisnant, Rascally Signs in Sacred Places: The Politics of Culture in Nicaragua, Chapel Hill, NC: U of North Carolina P, 1995, 406.85. Victoria González, “Somocista Women, Right‐Wing Politics, and Feminism in Nicaragua, 1936–1979,” in Victoria González and Karen Kampwirth, eds., Radical Women in Latin America: Left and Right, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State UP, 2001, 41. See also Victoria González, “Josefa Toledo de Aguerri (1866–1962) and the Forgotten History of Nicaraguan Feminism, 1821–1955,” M.A. thesis, University of New Mexico, 1996, 47–51, in which the only mention of the occupation is the name of Carmen Sobalbarro, a “Sandinista poet,” 48.86. Whisnant, Rascally Signs, 410; see also 409–11.87. Laleau, Le choc, 82.88. Women of Granada, letter, Granada, 11 October 1912, folder 7, box 1, Papers of Joseph H. Pendleton, Marine Corps Archives and Special Collections, Gray Research Center, Quantico, Virginia (hereafter GRC‐QV). For background on the riots, see Michel Gobat, Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua under U.S. Imperial Rule, Durham, NC: Duke UP, 2005, 94–110, and Michel Gobat, “Granada's Conservative Revolutionaries: Anti‐Elite Violence and the Nicaraguan Civil War of 1912,” paper presented at the Third Central American Congress of History, San José, Costa Rica, 15–18 July 1996.89. Balch, Occupied Haiti, 119.90. Renda, Taking Haiti, 171.91. Captain M. M. Taylor, USN, Commandant, 15th Naval District, memo to Secretary of the Navy, Managua, 27 January 1922, roll 30, M1140 Secret and Confidential Correspondence of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Office of the Secretary of the Navy, 1919–27, General Records of the Department of the Navy Record Group 80, NARA I.92. R. Hayden, Chief Sanitary Officer, letter to Military Governor of Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, 23 July 1920, legajo 1, 1917–1920, fondo Gobierno Militar, AGN‐DR.93. Ibid.94. Brigadier General Robert C. Kilmartin, USMC, oral‐history interview by Benis M. Frank, Quantico, 9 May 1970, Marine Corps Audiovisual Research Archives, Marine Corps Base, Quantico, Virginia (hereafter MCARA‐QV).95. Ibid.96. Roscoe Hill, “Los Marinos en Nicaragua, 1912–1925,”Revista conservadora del pensamiento centroamericano 27, 135, 1971, 9.97. General Robert E. Hogaboom, USMC (ret.), oral‐history interview by Benis M. Frank, St. Mary's City, Maryland, 1 April 1970, MCARA‐QV, 75.98. Renda, Taking Haiti, 86.99. Brigadier General Ivan W. Miller, USMC (ret.), oral history interview by Maj. Thomas E. Donnelly, USMC, Coronado, California, 10 December 1970, MCARA‐QV, 24.100. Juan Gómez, “The Gallant Dominicans,”American Mercury 17, May 1929, 94.101. My translation. Fiallo cited in Álvarez, Mujeres, 49.102. Gobat, American Dream, 254.103. El Indice (Santiago), cited in Derby, “Magic of Modernity,” 98.104. Ramón Alberto Ferreras, Enfoques de la intervención militar norteamericana a la RD (1916–1924), Santo Domingo: Editorial del Nordeste, 1984, 15.105. Damirón, ¡Ay de los Vencidos!106. My translation. Damirón, ¡Ay de los Vencidos!, 18.107. My translation. Read, Los civilizadores, 93.108. “Woman,” in Kelsey, “American Intervention,” 187.109. Georges Corvington, Port‐au‐Prince au cours des ans, vol. 6: La capitale d'Haïti sous l'occupation, 1922–1934, Port‐au‐Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1987, 118–22.110. My translation. Corvington, Port‐au‐Prince, 118–22. For a Dominican example of criticism of dancing, see “La Vida en Provincias: De Samaná,”Listín Diario (Santo Domingo), 15 September 1922, 6.111. Gobat, American Dream, 177. Women also began playing basketball, another U.S. import, in the early 1920s.112. Ibid., 186–9.113. Ibid., 254.114. “The Missionary Marines,”New York Times, 8 June 1919, sec. 3, 4. In the Dominican Republic, where there was less insecurity, markets included men and women; see Kelsey, “American Intervention,” 170.115. Kelsey, “American Intervention,” 118.116. Renda, Taking Haiti, 49; Balch, Occupied Haiti, 61.117. Lauren Derby, “Haitians, Magic, and Money: Raza and Society in the Haitian‐Dominican Borderlands, 1900 to 1937,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 3, 1994, 507–8.118. Ibid.119. William B. Seabrook, The Magic Island, New York: Paragon House, 1989, 186 (first ed.: 1929).120. George Eaton Simpson, “Haitian Peasant Economy,” The Journal of Negro History 4, 1940, 506.121. Sandra Ott, “Good Tongues, Bad Tongues: Denunciation, Rumour and Revenge in the French Basque Country, 1943–1945,” History and Anthropology 1, 2006, 57–72.122. John Houston Craige, Cannibal Cousins, New York: Minton, Balch & Company, 1934, 67.123. Eli K. Cole, Regimental Commander, memo to Commanding Officer, Champ de Mars, Cap‐Haïtien, 28 August 1915, folder Correspondence May‐Aug 1915, box 6, Papers of Smedley Butler, GRC‐QV.124. R. H. Greathouse, “King of the Banana Wars,” Marine Corps Gazette 44, June 1960, 32.125. Waller, letter to Caperton, Port‐au‐Prince, 18 May 1916, folder Correspondence Jan‐May 1916, box 1, Papers of William Banks Caperton, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress.126. Kelsey, “American Intervention,” 121.127. Blair Niles, Black Haiti: A Biography of Africa's Eldest Daughter, New York: Putnam, 1926, 139.128. Michel J. Kouri and 45 others, petition, Port‐au‐Prince, January [1921], 838.00/1770, Central Decimal Files Relating to Internal Affairs of Haiti, 1910–1929, RG 59, NARA II.129. U.S. Congress, Senate, Hearings before a Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo, Sixty‐Seventh Congress, First and Second Sessions, vol. 1, 1921, Washington: USGPO, 1922, 629, 541.130. James Weldon Johnson, “Self‐Determining Haiti II. What the United States Has Accomplished,”The Nation, 4 September 1920, 266.131. “Nouvelles du Cap,”Le Matin (Port‐au‐Prince), 26 December 1917, 2.132. Statement of Methius Richard, Headquarters of Gendarmerie d'Haiti, Hinche, 18 April 1920, folder Bandit Activities and Descriptions, box 3, Records of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti, 1915–1934, RG 127, NARA I.133. R. P. Wiliams, Commandant of Garde d'Haiti, memo to Brigadier General John Russell, American High Commissioner, Port‐au‐Prince, 20 September 1930, 838.00/2887, Central Decimal Files Relating to Internal Affairs of Haiti, 1930–1939, RG 59, NARA II.134. Lewis L. Gover, District Commander, memo to Brigade Commander, Gonaives, 2 September 1919, folder Brigade Commander—Correspondence, box 5, Records of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti, 1915–1934, RG 127, NARA I.135. Ibid.136. Abbe Louis Marie Le Sidanier, testimony in Senate Hearings, vol. 2, 850.137. Dame Desdune Sylvain, letter to General Evans, Chief of Garde, Dessalines, 28 January 1929, folder Haiti, 1928–1931—Haitiana, box 20, Papers of Oliver P. Smith, GRC‐QV.138. Ibid.139. Ibid.140. Mme Veuve C. Russo, letter to Forbes Commission, 6 March 1930, folder Commission Petitions, 1930 March 1–6, box 1068, President's Commission, HHL.141. One was from the Veuve Russo and the other was Mme P. Prophète, letter to Forbes Commission, Port‐au‐Prince, 6 March 1930, folder Recommendations and Suggestions Submitted to Commission, 1930 January‐March, box 1073, President's Commission, HHL.142. Julie Petit‐Frère Joseph, letter to Charlemagne Péralte, Rannibille, 7 June 1919, folder Correspondence Captured by Captain W. F. Becker, box 1, Special Correspondence of the Chief of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti, 1919–1920, RG 127, NARA I.143. Several students told me this story from oral tradition while I taught at the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo in fall 2006.144. Carlos V. de León, Casos y cosas de ayer, Santo Domingo: Núñez, 1972, 20.145. Lieutenant W. M. Quigley, USN, Flag Secretary to the Military Governor of Santo Domingo, memo to W. W. Russell, Minister of the United States, 31 July 1921, folder 3, 1–25 American Legation, box 46, Military Government of Santo Domingo, Records of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations Record Group 38, NARA I.
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