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The 18th-century traditions of representation in a new age of revolution

2014; Routledge; Volume: 40; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03468755.2014.987161

1502-7716

Pasi Ihalainen,

Electoral Systems and Political Participation

AbstractWhat happened to shared historical experiences in the discursive processes of constitutional reform in Sweden and Finland? This article examines the use of 18th-century history in early 20th-century politics. Building on a long-term survey of Swedish and Finnish estate and parliamentary debates, it analyses the political implications of differing national historiographies in the two successor states of the 18th-century Swedish realm, focusing on how the ancient past and collective (and often selective) memories of the Age of Absolutism, the Age of Liberty and the Gustavian Age were used by parliamentarians in constitutional debates. The analysis demonstrates how the Finnish polity continued to be profoundly influenced by these 18th-century constitutions even after the Russian Revolution, while Sweden took the post-French Revolution constitution of 1809 as its point of departure. In both countries, interpretations of the long 18th century were ideologically motivated in an age of the parliamentarization of government and the democratization of the representative system. This leads us to a discussion of the history-political significance of the common and differing understandings of representative government in the two interconnected countries.Keywords: constitutional historyrepresentative governmentparliamenthistory politicsSwedenFinland18th century20th centuryView correction statement:Erratum Notes1 For the German background of the term Geschichtspolitik see Torsti, ‘Historiapolitiikkaa tutkimaan’, 62.2 See especially Jansson, Rikssprängningen, 10–11, 244–6, 330; Ihalainen and Sundin, ‘Continuity and Change’, 1923 Andrae, Revolt eller reform; Lindman, Suomen kansanedustuslaitoksen historia; Sihvonen, Valtaistuin vapaana; Vares, ‘Demokratian haasteet 1907–1919’.4 Gustafsson, Political Interaction, 48–9, 158; Nordin, ‘Frihetstidens radikalism’, 60; Saastamoinen, ‘Johdatus poliittisiin käsitteisiin’, 49; Karonen, Pohjoinen suurvalta, 383; Ihalainen, Agents of the People, chapter 3.5 Lagerroth, Frihetstidens författning, 322, 326, 690, 711; Lagerroth, Frihetstidens maktägande ständer, 148, 179, 212; Lindberg, Den antika skevheten, 211, 213; Anglophone authors echoing these include Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Metcalf, ‘Parliamentary Sovereignty’ and Metcalf, ‘Hattar och mössor’.6 Karonen, Pohjoinen suurvalta, 406–7; cf. Karonen, Pohjoinen suurvalta, 405, on ‘an excessively modern system’; Nurmiainen, Edistys ja yhteinen hyvä, 13–14, 33, 211–13. Finnish- and Swedish-speaking historians have also interpreted the Swedish past differently. Villstrand and Östman, ‘Annorlundagörandets olidliga lätthet’, 236–7.7 Ihalainen, Agents of the People.8 Gustafsson, Political Interaction, 50, 52, 134, 157.9 Wolff, ‘Pro Patria et Libertate’, 35; Wolff, ‘Aristocratic Republicanism’, 367; Nurmiainen, Edistys ja yhteinen hyvä, 25.10 Alm, Kungsord i elfte timme, 136–7; Hallberg, Ages of Liberty, 252; Wolff, Noble Conceptions, 47, 58, 63; Wolff, ‘Aristocratic Notions’.11 See Ihalainen, ‘La Finlande de 1809’ on Finnish-Swedish peasants’ appeals in 1809 to 1,000 years of peasant participation.12 Sundin, 1809, 159–228.13 Ihalainen, ‘La Finlande de 1809’; see also Ihalainen, ‘From a Despised French Word’.14 Ihalainen and Sundin, ‘Continuity and Change’.15 See also Ihalainen, ‘From a Despised French Word’.16 Fahlbeck, Regeringsformen i historisk belysning, 22, 26–9, 37; Fahlbeck, Engelsk parlamentarism contra svensk, 5–6; Pettersson, Politisk vetenskap, 161, 170; Jakobsen and Kurunmäki, ‘The Formation of Parliamentarism’. I would like to thank my research assistant Ville Häkkinen for his help in consulting this background literature.17 Stjernquist, ‘Fredrik Lagerroth’; for more up-to-date interpretation, see Wolff, ‘Legitimising Privilege’.18 Lagerroth, Frihetstidens författning, 322, 326, 690, 711; Lagerroth, Frihetstidens maktägande ständer, 148, 179, 212; Lagerroth, Levande och dött.19 Lagerroth, Konung och adel, 5–6, 14, 22–3, 29–30.20 Ihalainen, Ilie, and Palonen, Parliament and Parliamentarism.21 Stjernquist, Tvåkammartiden.22 Fahlbeck, ‘Studier öfver frihetstidens politiska idéer’, 326–8, 330, 335; Fahlbeck, Engelsk parlamentarism contra svensk, 11.23 Lagerroth, Frihetstidens författning, 665, 733–5.24 Larsson, ‘Sam Clason’, 349–54. Similar highly critical views of the political weakness caused by the constitution of the Age of Liberty and the restoration of royal power by Gustav III were to be found in schoolbooks used in both Sweden and Finland. See Pallin and Schybergson, Uuden-ajan historian oppikirja, 138; Pallin, Yleisen historian oppikirja, 150–1.25 Larsson, ‘Sam Clason’, 349–50, 352–4.26 Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia, 269, 482.27 Skoglund, Vita mössor, 62.28 Pallin, Yleisen historian oppikirja, 61, 87; A Finnish history book by Lindeqvist, Suomen historian oppikirja, 23, also echoed this interpretation; Jakobsen and Kurunmäki, ‘The Formation of Parliamentarism’.29 Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia, 272–6, 298.30 Riksdagens protokoll vid … riksmötet …. Andra kammaren (hereafter AK), 21 March 1917, 33:45.31 AK, 5 June 1917, 72:15–16.32 Ibid., 72:57.33 AK, 7 June 1917, 75:30.34 Rudolf Kjellén (the National Party), a conservative political scientist who held the prestigious Skyttean Professorship in Rhetoric and Politics at Uppsala University, even if critical of parliamentarism, held a positive view of Lagerroth’s dissertation and placed the rise of peasant influence at the time of Engelbrekt, seeing it as a recognition of peasant contributions to the defence of Sweden. See Lagerroth, Konung och adel, 9, for a reference to this; Stjernquist, Tvåkammartiden; Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia, 482–3; Pettersson, Politisk vetenskap, 208.35 AK, 5 June 1917, 72:20.36 AK, 14 April 1917, 32:22–3.37 All biographical details are based on Stjernquist, Tvåkammarriksdagen.38 Björk, ‘Harald Hjärne’, 251; Larsson, ‘Sam Clason’, 314, 348.39 In a review, Hjärne had criticized the claim that the medieval peasantry had played a key role in the national movement and rejected exaggerated interpretations of popular sovereignty. Björk, ‘Harald Hjärne’, 252.40 AK, 14 April 1917, 41:53, 55.41 Ibid., 41:66.42 Ibid., 41:69.43 AK, 5 June 1917, 72:30.44 Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia, 301–3.45 See Jörke and Llanque, ‘Parliamentarism and Democracy’ on German socialist political theory.46 Valtiopäiväasiakirjat (hereafter VP), 17 July 1917, 1024. Moving from the Social Democrats to the Finnish Party was logical in the sense that the latter was not only conservative but also social reformist and in favour of the advancement of the Finnish language.47 Ibid., 1053.48 Pallin and Schybergson, Uuden-ajan historian oppikirja, 137–8; Pallin, Yleisen historian oppikirja, 150–1; Mantere and Sarva, Keskikoulun yleinen historia, 149–50; Forrström, Suomen historian oppikirja, 65 (citation), 66; Lindeqvist, Suomen historian oppikirja, 85–7.49 VP, 10 July 1917, 89; Eduskunta-mielivalta ignored all conceptual distinctions between estate assemblies and modern parliaments.50 VP, 17 July 1917, 1021; for eduskuntayksinvaltius, see the preceding note.51 VP, 10 July 1917, 896.52 Konrad Lehtimäki, Ibid. 909; Lehtimäki, VP, 17 July 1917, 1032.53 VP, 17 July 1917, 1029–30.54 Ibid., 1029.55 VP, 8 November 1917, 33.56 VP, 15 November 1917, 130.57 VP, 8 November 1917, 28–9; VP, 15 November 1917, 127; see also Jansson, Rikssprängningen, 114.58 VP, 15 November 1917, 132.59 Ibid., 128.60 Ibid., 129.61 Ibid., 145.62 Ibid., 133.63 VP, 8 November 1917, 23.64 Oskari Tokoi, VP, 9 November 1917, 48.65 VP, 15 November 1917, 138. Kujala was responding at the end of his sentence to an interjection from the Left directed against his previous suggestion. See Forrström, Suomen historian oppikirja, 11.66 VP, 15 November 1917, 138; see Forrström, Suomen historian oppikirja, 65, 69 on the betrayal of the people by their representatives and especially the nobility.67 VP, 15 November 1917, 138.68 VP, 10 November 1917, 74.69 Ibid., 81.70 VP, 5 December 1917, 353.71 VP, 24 November 1917, 182.72 Ibid., 185.73 VP, 6 December 1917, 367, 370.74 Arvid Lindman, AK, 20 February 1918, 16:28–9, 33.75 Ibid., 16:30; Ibid., 16:34: frändefolk, systerlandet. Also: broderland (brother country), Raoul Hamilton, Ibid., 16:46 and broderfolk (brother people), David Norman, Ibid., 16:48.76 Ibid., 16:64.77 Eskola, Suomen hurja vuosi, 83–5, 97–9, 104–5, 128–30.78 VP, 12 June 1917, 1244.79 VP, 12 June 1918, 1252; 13 June 1918, 1313; 12 July 1918, 1649.80 VP, 12 July 1918, 1649, 1652; see also Wrede, ‘Parlamentaarinen järjestelmä’, 12.81 VP, 12 June 1917, 1262.82 VP, 13 June 1917, 1288.83 Ibid., 1303–4.84 VP, 7 August 1918, 1826.85 Juho Snellman, VP, 7 August 1918, 1845.86 Ibid., 1827, 1829–30.87 VP, 12 June 1917, 1248; 12 July 1918, 1666–7.88 VP, 7 August 1918, 1851.89 Ibid., 1853.90 VP, 12 June 1917, 1260.91 Ibid., 1255.92 VP, 13 June 1917, 1315–16.93 VP, 7 August 1918, 1843–4.94 Ibid., 1850–1.95 VP, 8 August 1918, 1860, also 1872.96 Ibid., 1861; 9 October 1918, 109.97 VP, 8 August 1918, 1863.98 VP, 9 August 1918, 1881–2; also Artur Lagerlöf (Finnish), Ibid., 1883.99 VP, 8 August 1918, 1865; 9 August 1918, 1879–80; also 9 October 1918, 112; also Juho Kokko, 8 August 1918, 1866.100 VP, 4 October 1918, 24, 28; also 9 October 1918, 109; also Antti Rentola, 4 October 1918, 28–9.101 VP, 8 October 1918, 72; 9 October 1918, 100.102 VP, 4 October 1918, 35.103 VP, 9 October 1918, 96–7.104 VP, 8 August 1918, 1872; 9 August 1918, 1877–8.105 VP, 8 August 1918, 1866–7; 8 October 1918, 63–4.106 VP, 9 August 1918, 1891.107 Lindeqvist, Suomen historian oppikirja, 15, 20.108 VP, 9 October 1918, 122.109 Sihvonen, Valtaistuin vapaana, 13.110 Ibid., 14; Jussila, Hentilä, and Nevakivi, From Grand Duchy, 124–5; Vares, ‘Demokratian haasteet’, 128–30.111 Olsson, Den svenska högerns anpassning, 302.112 Riksdagens protokoll vid … riksmötet år …. Första kammaren (hereafter FK), 17 December 1918, 10:40.113 AK, 17 December 1918, 17:34.114 FK, 17 December 1918, 10:62.115 AK, 26 November 1918, 9:18; 17 December 1918, 17:70.116 AK, 17 December 1918, 18:25–26; On Månsson’s idealisation of ting, see Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia, 316.117 FK, 26 November 1918, 5:45.118 FK, 17 December 1918, 11:3.119 AK, 17 December 1918, 10:40.120 FK, 17 December 1918, 10:15.121 Ibid., 10:41.122 Ibid., 11:9–10.123 Ibid., 10:60; Larsson, ‘Sam Clason’, 315.124 Ibid., 10:28.125 Ibid., 10:31–32.126 Adolf Lindgren, Ibid., 11:14.127 Alexis Hammarström (National), Ibid., 10:57; Richard Hermelin (National), Ibid., 10:77.128 FK, 5 June 1919, 53:31.129 Ibid., 53:34.130 Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia; Kurunmäki and Strang, Rhetorics of Nordic Democracy; Friberg, Demokrati bortom politiken. On contemporary schoolbooks, see Villstrand and Östman, ‘Annorlundagörandets olidliga lätthet’, 240.131 Metcalf, ‘Hattar och mössor’; Nordin, Ett fattigt men fritt folk; Hallberg, Ages of Liberty; Winton, Frihetstidens politiska praktik; Lindberg, Den antika skevheten.132 Villstrand, Valtakunnanosa, 260.133 Finnish-speaking ultra-conservatives, in particular, emphasized the need to maintain an uncompromised religious unity as stipulated in the first article of the Form of Government of 1772: Lutheran uniformity since the Convention of Uppsala (1593) had taught obedience to the law and formed the basis for the growth of a national conscience. For Finnish nationalists, it was easier to accept the identity-creating potential of the Lutheran Church than the Swedish political system as such. Wilhelmi Malmivaara, VP, 4 June 1919, 794; Ilmi Hallstén, Ibid., 795; Frans Kärki, 14 June 1919, 888; Ihalainen, Protestant Nations Redefined.134 Väinö Tanner, VP, 25 April 1919, 136, 140. Also Hannes Ryömä, Ibid., 141, and Antti Juutilainen, Ibid., 143.135 Paavo Virkkunen, Ibid., 138.136 Ibid., 143; 24 May 1919, 523.137 VP, 2 June 1919, 639–40; See also Frans Kärki, 14 June 1919, 887.138 VP, 18 June 1919, 970.139 VP, 2 June 1919, 648.140 VP, 14 June 1919, 890.141 Rafael Colliander, Ibid., 919–20.142 E.N. Setälä, Ibid., 896.143 VP, 14 June 1919, 912.144 VP, 21 June 1919, 1020.145 Ibid., 1024.146 VP, 24 May 1919, 517; Lähteenmäki, Väinö Voionmaa, 99, 110.147 Yrjö-Koskinen and Voionmaa, Suomen historia, 17, 20–1, 140; Voionmaa, Valtioelämän perusteet, 48.148 VP, 24 May 1919, 508.149 Ibid., 502–3.150 Ibid., 536; 4 June 1919, 747.151 VP, 14 June 1919, 894.152 Ibid., 895; The construction of Chydenius as a ‘democrat’ still continues in Finnish and Swedish historiography.153 VP, 4 June 1919, 744; Lagerroth, Konung och adel, 14, complains about this.154 VP, 14 June 1919, 908.155 Anton Kotonen, Ibid., 923.156 VP, 4 June 1919, 762.157 Artur Wuorimaa, Ibid., 763.158 Ibid., 772.159 VP, 14 June 1919, 883; also Artur Wuorimaa, Ibid., 890.160 Linderborg, Socialdemokraterna skriver historia, 476; In addition to literature cited in notes 5, 6, 9 and 131 above, see debate on 18th-century parliamentary history in Ihalainen, ‘Det svenska prästerskapet’ which reviews Winton, Frihetstidens politiska praktik; Ihalainen, ‘A Launch of a Swedish National Project’ which reviews Lindberg, Den antika skevheten; Ihalainen, ‘I vilken mån’; and Lindberg, Democracy, which reviews Ihalainen, Agents of the People. For history politics related to the common past in the language policy discourse of the 2000s, see Ihalainen and Saarinen, ‘Constructing “Language”’, especially pp. 49–50.161 Ihalainen, Saarinen, Nikula and Pöyhönen, ‘Aika kielipolitiikassa’; Villstrand and Östman, ‘Annorlundagörandets olidliga lätthet’, 238; Ihalainen and Saarinen, ‘Constructing “Language”’.162 Even today, two interpretations of the common past with Sweden continue to find support among Finns, as is demonstrated by the debate provoked by the TV series ‘Finland is Swedish’ in 2013.163 Ihalainen, and others, ‘Aika kielipolitiikassa’.Additional informationNotes on contributorsPasi IhalainenPasi Ihalainen is a professor of comparative European history at the Department of History and Ethnology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. He has published widely on parliamentary history since the 18th century, mostly applying comparative perspectives. He is the author of Agents of the People: Democracy and Popular Sovereignty in British and Swedish Parliamentary and Public Debates, 1734–1800 (Brill 2010) and edited Parliament and Parliamentarism: A Comparative History of Disputes about a European Concept (Berghahn 2015) with Cornelia Ilie and Kari Palonen. Address: Department of History and Ethnology, POB 35 (H), 40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland. [email: pasi.t.ihalainen@jyu.fi]