Statelessness, Human Rights and Decolonisation
2012; Routledge; Volume: 47; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00223344.2011.647397
ISSN1469-9605
Autores Tópico(s)Climate Change, Adaptation, Migration
ResumoAbstract Citizenship involves both legal status and lived experience. The Condominium of the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) was based on an agreement between France and Britain, which explicitly denied citizenship to the indigenous majority of the archipelago. Indigenous ni-Vanuatu were officially stateless under the terms by which France and Britain jointly governed the New Hebrides from 1906 to 1980. Although forms of citizenship as lived experience were evident in church, custom and profession, its legal absence sharply curtailed the ability of ni-Vanuatu to fully participate as citizens in a full range of civil, social and political rights that citizenship embodies. While limitations on indigenous legal, political and social rights were not unusual in colonial territories up until World War II, the total denial of any form of civil status was. After World War II, the issue of indigenous statelessness in the New Hebrides became more acute, as it contravened the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, constitutional guarantees to citizenship under the Fourth and Fifth French Republics and the principles of the British Nationality Act of 1948. This paper explores statelessness and citizenship in the New Hebrides and argues that the cumulative experiences of statelessness and the limitations that the absence of legal citizenship placed on political and social rights in the New Hebrides were, like land and custom (kastom), vital issues in the decolonisation of Vanuatu. Acknowledgements A University of Otago, Division of Humanities Research Grant, titled Citizenship, 'Race' and Rights in Vanuatu (2008–2009) generously funded the research for this article, which drew on Special Collections at the University of Auckland Library and the University of Otago Library, including the Hocken Collections, Uare Taoka o Hakena. At these libraries I thank Stephen Innes, Wakefield Harper, William Hamill, Jo Birks and Paula Hasler. To His Excellency, Ambassador Donald Kalpokas, Permanent Representative to the United Nations for the Republic of Vanuatu in New York, I would like to express my gratitude for kind permission to reproduce his poem, Who am I?. To His Excellency, Ati George Sokomanu MBE, First President of the Republic of Vanuatu (1980–1988) I am grateful for reviewing and approving the account of his travel experiences in the mid 1960s, and offering astute feedback. Three anonymous referees provided constructive and thought-provoking comments while many people assisted in other ways. I thank in particular Anna Naupa, Jennifer Kalpokas, Mark Harradine, Chris Brickell, Ewan Maidment, Stuart Inder, Mei Ding, Jeff Scofield, Will Anderson, Rochelle Bailey, Roberta Jenkins, Kirsten Stallard, Juliet Begley, Vicki Luker, Heather Sadler, Cathrine Waite, Marj Blair and Bronwyn Craig. Notes 1 Donald Kalpokas, 'Who am I?', Pacific Islands Monthly, September 1974, 61. By kind permission, His Excellency, Ambassador Donald Kalpokas, Permanent Representative of the Republic of Vanuatu to the United Nations General Assembly, New York. 2 A.M. Wilkie–A.J. Fairclough, Colonial Office, London, 20 Aug. 1965, 'National status: nationality and citizenship of New Hebrides, 1965–67', Western Pacific High Commission (hereinafter WPHC), 28/I/CF/242/1/8, Manuscripts and Archives (hereinafter MSS & Archives) 2003/1, Special Collections, University of Auckland Library. 3 The official name for the British administration in the Condominium of the New Hebrides was the New Hebrides British National Service (NHBNS). I am grateful to His Excellency, Ati George Sokomanu MBE, First President of the Republic of Vanuatu (1980–88) for clarifying this. The NHBNS was often abbreviated to British National Service (BNS) in the New Hebrides. For example, see Ati George Sokomanu, 'Ati George Sokomanu: Administrative Officer, First President of Vanuatu', in Brian J. Bresnihan and Keith Woodward (eds), Tufala Gavman: reminiscences from the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides (Suva 2002), 473–87. The collection acronym for the British administration records consulted during research for this paper held in Special Collections at the University of Auckland Library is New Hebrides British Service (NHBS). NHBS is thus used to cite these records in this paper. For a thorough discussion of NHBS and WPHC records see Stephen Innes, 'From the archives: Western Pacific archives in their new home', Journal of Pacific History, 42:2 (2007), 265–73. 4 G. Kalkoa, report included in correspondence, A.M. Wilkie–A.J. Fairclough, Colonial Office, London, 20 Aug. 1965, 'National status: nationality and citizenship of New Hebrides, 1965–67', WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 A.M. Wilkie–A.J. Fairclough, 20 Aug. 1965, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 14 'Protocol respecting the New Hebrides', signed at London on 6 Aug. 1914 by representatives of the British and French Governments (ratifications exchanged at London, 18 Mar. 1922). Copy cited in 'British Nationality Act 1948: treatment of British Protected and British Registered Persons; question of status of illegitimate half-castes in New Hebrides, 1952–53', Colonial Office (hereinafter CO), 1026/8, The National Archives: Public Records Office (hereinafter TNA: PRO), Kew, London; Convention between Great Britain and France concerning the New Hebrides, signed at London by representatives of the British and French Governments (ratifications exchanged at London, 9 Jan. 1907). Copies of the 1906 and 1914 agreements are available at Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute (PacLII), University of the South Pacific School of Law, Port Vila, Vanuatu http://www.vanuatu.usp.ac.fj/library/Online/Texts/Pacific_archive/homepage.htm (accessed 22 Nov. 2011). Article 8(2) of the 1914 protocol and 1906 convention prohibiting indigenous New Hebrideans from acquiring citizenship are identical. 15 Residents from other countries living in the New Hebrides had to choose, or opt between French or British jurisdiction within one month of arriving in the territory. Both French citizens and optants and British citizens and optants collectively became French and British ressortissants (a term covering both citizens and optants together). Margaret Rodman, Houses far from Home: British colonial space in the New Hebrides (Honolulu 2001), 29; Gregory Rawlings, 'Archives of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Vanuatu', Pambu: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau Newsletter, 5/9 (1999), 9–11; Gregory Rawlings, 'New microfilm titles relating to law and constitutional change in Vanuatu', Pambu: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau Newsletter, 5/12 (2001), 4–6; 'Protocol Respecting the New Hebrides', Article 1(2). 16 United Nations, The Universal Declaration Human Rights (New York 1948). Copy available at http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml (accessed 22 Nov. 2011). 17 Donald Kalpokas, 'Donald Kalpokas: former prime minister of Vanuatu', in Brian J. Bresnihan and Keith Woodward (eds), Tufala Gavman: reminiscences from the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides (Suva 2002), 343. 18 Vincent Boulekone, 'The politics of Tan Union', in Howard van Trease (ed.), Melanesian Politics: stael blong Vanuatu (Christchurch and Suva 1995), 197. Emphasis added. 19 Selwyn Arutangi, 'Vanuatu: overcoming the colonial legacy', in Ron Crocombe (ed.), Land Tenure in the Pacific (Suva 1987), 261–302; Sethy Regenvanu, 'Kraon, les terres, the land', in Barry Weightman and Hilda Lini (eds), Vanuatu: twenti wan tingting long team blong independens (Suva 1980), 66–81; Barak Sope, Land and politics in the New Hebrides (Suva 1974); Howard van Trease, The Politics of Land in Vanuatu: from colony to independence (Suva 1987), 51; Kalkot Matas Kele-Kele, 'The emergence of political parties', in Chris Plant (ed.), New Hebrides: the road to independence (Suva 1977), 17; Silas Hakwa, 'Law', in Barry Weightman and Hilda Lini (eds), Vanuatu: twenti wan tingting long team blong independens (Suva 1980), 203; William Miles, Bridging Mental Boundaries in a Postcolonial Microcosm: identity and development in Vanuatu (Honolulu 1998), 34; Andrew Stuart, 'Andrew Stuart: British resident commissioner, 1978–1980', in Brian J. Bresnihan and Keith Woodward (eds), Tufala Gavman: reminiscences from the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides (Suva 2002), 489. 20 These latter files were made available through the University of Otago Library. 21 See acknowledgements above. 22 Patrick Weil, How to be French: nationality in the making since 1789 (Durham and London 2008); Emmanuelle Saada, 'The empire of law: dignity, prestige, and domination in the "colonial situation"', French Politics, Culture and Society, 20:2 (2002), 98–120. For a comparison with New Caledonia see Adrian Muckle, 'The presumption of indigeneity: colonial administration, the "community of race" and the category of indigène in New Caledonia, 1887–1946', Journal of Pacific History, forthcoming. 23 Michel Bernast, 'The constitution', in Barry Weightman and Hilda Lini (eds), Vanuatu: twenti wan tingting long team blong independens (Suva 1980), 186–99; M. Philippe Delacroix, Proceedings of the New Hebrides Advisory Council, 24th Session, 5–12 Dec. 1972 (Resumed 13 Mar. 1973), Port Vila, Hocken Collections, Uare Taoka o Hakena, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, OPN N, 267. 24 Weil, How to be French; Saada, 'The empire of law'; Robert Aldrich, Greater France: a history of French overseas expansion (New York 1996); van Trease, The Politics of Land in Vanuatu. 25 Margaret Rodman, '"My only weapon being a pencil": inscribing the prison in the New Hebrides', Journal of Pacific History, 33 (1998), 29–49; Margaret Rodman, 'Portentous splendour: building the Condominium of the New Hebrides', History and Anthropology, 11:4 (1999), 479–514; Margaret Rodman, 'The heart in the archives: colonial contestation of desire and fear in the New Hebrides, 1933', Journal of Pacific History, 38: 3 (2003), 291–312; Margaret Rodman, 'Traveling stories, colonial intimacies, and women's histories in Vanuatu', The Contemporary Pacific, 16:2 (2004), 233–57; Alexandra Widmer, 'Native medical practitioners, temporality, and nascent biomedical citizenship in the New Hebrides', Political and Legal Anthropology Review (PoLAR) 33: S1 (2010, Supplement), 57–80; Alexandra Widmer, 'The effects of elusive knowledge: census, health laws and inconsistently modern subjects in early colonial Vanuatu', Journal of Legal Anthropology 1:1 (2008), 92–116. 26 Rodman, Houses far from Home, 11. 27 Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, 'Return of the citizen: a survey of recent work on citizenship theory', Ethics, 104:2 (1994), 352–81; Thomas H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge 1950); Kim Rubenstein, Australian Citizenship Law in Context (Pyrmont, NSW 2002); Chris Brickell, 'Soldier to civilian: army education and postwar New Zealand citizenship', History of Education, 39:3 (2010), 377. 28 Kymlicka and Norman, 'Return of the citizen', 353. 29 Ibid, 354. 30 Bronwen Douglas, 'Christian citizens: women and negotiations of modernity in Vanuatu', The Contemporary Pacific, 14:1 (2002), 1–38; Widmer, 'Native medical practitioners, temporality, and nascent biomedical citizenship in the New Hebrides', 57–80. 31 Margaret Jolly, 'Birds and banyans of South Pacific: kastom in anti-colonial struggle', Mankind, 13:4 (1982), 349. 32 Skul is a Bislama term that refers to ni-Vanuatu Christian communities that place emphasis on church, literacy and education. Ibid., 339. 33 Peggy Levitt and Rafael de la Dehesa, 'Transnational migration and the redefinition of the state: variations and explanations', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 26: 4 (2003), 587–611. 34 R.F.V. Heuston, 'British nationality and Irish citizenship', International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs), 26:1 (1950), 77–90; Peter J. Spiro, 'Dual nationality and the meaning of citizenship', Emory Law Journal, 46: 4 (1997), 1411–1486; Enikő Horváth, Mandating Identity: citizenship, kinship laws and plural nationality in the European Union (Alphen aan den Rijn 2008), xix and 302. In specific relation to the British Nationality Act (BNA) 1948, Hansen shows that citizenship provided a gateway to subjecthood rather than nationality per se, Randall Hansen, 'The politics of citizenship in 1940s Britain: the British Nationality Act', Twentieth Century British History, 10:1 (1999), 67–95. 35 Linda Kerber, 'The meanings of citizenship', Journal of American History 84 (1997), 836. 36 US Department of State, 'Acquisition of US nationality in US territories and possessions', Foreign Affairs Manual Volume 7 — Consular Affairs (Washington DC 2009), 1–53. 37 Weil, How to be French, 13–14 and 255. 38 Ibid., 208. See also Aldrich, Greater France, 213. 39 Aldrich, Greater France, 212–14. For the operation of the code de l'indigénat in neighbouring New Caledonia, see Adrian Muckle, 'Troublesome chiefs and disorderly subjects: the indigénat and the internment of Kanak in New Caledonia (1887–1928),' French Colonial History, 11 (2010), 131–60, and Muckle, 'The presumption of indigeneity'. 40 Colonial Office, 'Memorandum on legislation involving colour discrimination', London, Dec. 1946, 'Not otherwise classified. Discriminatory, 1947–56', New Hebrides British Service (hereinafter NHBS), 4/II/81/1/5, MSS & Archives 2003/1, Special Collections, University of Auckland Library. 41 Ibid., 17. 42 'Protocol Respecting the New Hebrides', 11. Emphasis added. 43 A.H. Egan, 'The British half-caste in the New Hebrides', Vila, 22 Aug. 1945, 'Nationality problems in the New Hebrides', NHBS, 3/II/40/6. See also Gregory Rawlings, 'Statelessness, citizenship and annotated discriminations: meta-documents and the aesthetics of the subtle at the United Nations', History and Anthropology, 22:4 (2011), 465. 44 Kalpokas, 'Who am I?' 45 Saada, 'The empire of law', 108. 46 Protocol Respecting the New Hebrides'; A. H. Egan–HBM's High Commissioner's Court for the Western Pacific, Vila, New Hebrides, 23 Jun. 1941, 'Nationality problems in the New Hebrides', NHBS3/II/40/6. 47 'Acquisition of French nationality by New Hebridean 1963', NHBS, 9/I/F486/1/2; 'French natives — administrative treatment', NHBS, 3/II/40/1. 48 A.H. Egan–HBM's High Commissioner's Court for the Western Pacific, Vila, New Hebrides, 23 Jun. 1941, 'Nationality problems in the New Hebrides', NHBS3/II/40/6. 49 Muckle, 'The presumption of indigeneity', 14–15. 50 Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: race and the intimate in colonial rule (Berkley 2002), 85–96. 51 British Resident Commissioner, Vila–Rev. E.V. Milne, Nguna, 13 Dec. 1932, 'Willie George of Emai–Nationality of', NHBS, 3/II/40/8. 52 'Protocol respecting the New Hebrides'; Minute 3, 1 Dec. 1932, NHBS, 3/II/40/8. 53 Graham Miller–Acting British Resident Commissioner, 5 Sep. 1946, NHBS, 3/II/40/8. 54 Ibid. 55 Acting British Resident Commissioner, Vila–Rev. J.G. Miller, Tongoa, 7 Oct. 1946, NHBS, 3/II/40/8. 56 Graham Miller, Tongoa–Acting British High Commissioner, Vila, 12 Oct. 1946. 57 Acting Resident Commissioner–The Resident Commissioner for France, with attachment 'Vila Residents', 19 Feb. 1951, 'Statistical information required for the United Nations', NHBS, 3/II/58/52. See note 15 for definition of ressortissant in the New Hebrides. 58 Aldrich, Greater France, 281. 59 United Nations, The Universal Declaration Human Rights. 60 Colonial Office–The High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, 14 Nov. 1949, 'Revision of nationality provisions in new protocol for New Hebrides', CO, 1036/123. 61 Rawlings, 'Statelessness, citizenship and annotated discriminations', 461–79. 62 United Nations, Charter of the United Nations and the Statute of the International Court of Justice (San Francisco 1945), 14. 63 Colonial Office Notes for guidance in preparing transmissions in accordance with Article 73(e) of the United Nations Charter, 1952, 'Statistical Information Required for the United Nations', NHBS, 3/II/58/52. 64 Ibid. 65 High Commissioner for the Western Pacific–Secretary of State, 12 Oct. 1962, 'National Status: Status of Stateless Persons, 1962–66', WPHC, 20/242/1/5. 66 Fransman has summarised these five categories of citizenship in the BNA of 1948 as: (i) 'Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs)'; (ii) 'Citizens of independent Commonwealth countries' (CICCs); (iii) British subjects in Eire (Ireland); (iv) 'British subjects without citizenship' (to cover independent commonwealth countries until such time that they passed their own nationality legislation); and (v) 'British Protected Persons (BPPs)'. All others not included under (i)–(v) were classified as aliens. Laurie Fransman, Fransman's British Nationality Law (London 1989), 59–60; see also Hansen, 'The politics of citizenship in 1940s Britain', 78. For the Government of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland, British Nationality Act 1948, Westminster London, see copy available at Nationality Laws of European States and Territories, United Settlement Hosting: Academic and Scholarly Materials on Private International Law, http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1948.htm 67 Hansen, 'The politics of citizenship in 1940s Britain', 67–9. 68 Fransman, Fransman's British Nationality Law, 811. 69 J.E. Rendall–A. MacLeod-Smith, 27 May 1954, CO, 1036/123. 70 Fransman, Fransman's British Nationality Law, 811. Emphasis in original. 71 Ibid., 812. Emphasis in original. 72 High Commissioner for the Western Pacific–The Secretary of State for the Colonies, 31 Jul. 1954, 'Nationality and Citizenship. British Nationality 1939–1961', NHBS, 4/II/2/4/2. 73 Ibid. 74 Fransman, Fransman's British Nationality Law, 812. See also Margaret Jolly, 'Oceanic hauntings? Race-culture-place between Vanuatu and Hawai'i,' Journal of Intercultural Studies, 28:1 (2007), 104. 75 Fransman, Fransman's British Nationality Law, 39. 76 Ibid., 812. 77 H.L.M. Oxley–Mr Rendall, 21 Jul. 1954, CO, 1036/123. 78 Colonial Office Brief, 'Anglo-French talks in New Hebrides affairs London, March, 1966. Agenda Item 7. Introduction of some form of citizenship or nationality for the native population', 'National status: nationality and citizenship of New Hebrides 1965–67', WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 79 On the 'belonger' status in the British Virgin Islands, see Bill Maurer, 'Orderly families for the new economic order: belonging and citizenship in the British Virgin Islands', Identities, 2:1–2 (1995), 149–71. For Cayman Islands, see Vered Amit, 'A clash of vulnerabilities: citizenship, labor and expatriacy in the Cayman Islands', American Ethnologist, 28 (2001), 574–94. For Solomon Islands, see Barrie Macdonald, 'Britain', in Kerry Howe, Robert C. Kiste and Brij V. Lal (eds), Tides of History: the Pacific Islands in the twentieth century (Honolulu 1994), 183. 80 Anglo-French Conference on the amendment of the New Hebrides Protocol and other administration and financial matters in connection with the condominium administration, opening meeting 2 Mar. 1954, 'Anglo French Conference on New Hebrides Condominium Administration', WPHC, 6/CF29/89/1. 81 Ibid. 82 Aide memoire circulated by Sir Robert Stanley, 'The administration and finances of the Condominium of the New Hebrides', 'Discussions at Honiara concerning Protocol Amendment etc. Part I. Minutes of meetings 2–5 March 1954 (opening and protocol)', NHBS, 17/IV/1. 83 Constance M Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore: 1819–2005 (Singapore 2009), 268. 84 Ibid. 85 Colonial Office Brief, Mar. 1966, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 86 Ibid. 87 A.J. Fairclough, High Commission for the Western Pacific, Honiara–H.P. Hall, Colonial Office, London, 25 Nov. 1965, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 88 Colonial Office Brief, Mar. 1966, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 89 Ibid. 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 Maurer, 'Orderly families for the new economic order', 154. Emphasis added. 93 A.M. Wilkie–A.J. Fairclough, 20 Aug. 1965, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 94 Extract from Colonial Office note of the meeting between Mr Greenwood and Monsieur Jacquinot, Paris, 2 Jul. 1965, Ibid. 95 A.M. Wilkie–A.J. Fairclough, 15 Feb. 1966, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 96 'Case of Father Gérard Amédée', nd., circa. 1965, Ibid. 97 Colonial Office Brief, Mar. 1966, Ibid. 98 Ibid. 99 Van Trease, The Politics of Land in Vanuatu, xii–xiii and 110–116; Colonial Office Brief, Mar. 1966, WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 100 Draft brief for the Secretary of State: introduction of some form of citizenship or nationality for New Hebrides (Item 7 of Appendix A), WPHC, 28/I/CF/242/1/8. 101 However, forms of legal discrimination within this singular category of citizenship did not end until 1983. Weil, How to be French, 6. 102 Kalpokas, 'Who am I?' 103 Barak Sope, 'Background to "Man of Vanuatu": the colonial history of the New Hebrides', in Father Walter Lini, Beyond Pandemonium: from the New Hebrides to Vanuatu (Suva 1980), 17. 104 Ibid., 18. 105 Vincent Boulekone, 'Presentation hearing before the UN Special Committee on Decolonisation (Committee of 24) 24 Aug. 1976', in Chris Plant (ed.), New Hebrides: the road to independence (Suva 1977), 106. 106 Delacroix, Proceedings of the New Hebrides Advisory Council, 24th Session, 5–12 Dec. 1972 (resumed 13 Mar. 1973), Port Vila, Hocken Collections, Uare Taoka o Hakena, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, OPN N, 267. 107 Resident Commissioners Opening Address and Joint Speech to the New Hebrides Advisory Council, 10 Dec. 1974, Proceedings of the New Hebrides Advisory Council, 26th Session, 10–17 Dec. 1974, Port Vila, Hocken Collections, Uare Taoka o Hakena, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, OPN N, 3. 108 Ibid. 109 Alfred M. Boll, Multiple Nationality and International Law (Leiden 2007), 88–9. 110 Bernast, 'The constitution', 195. 111 Ibid. 112 British Resident Commissioner, Andrew Stuart, address to Constitutional Committee, PV/30, Minutes of Meeting, 06 Aug. 1979, in [Minutes of the Vanuatu] Constitutional Committee: courtesy of the delegation of the European Commission to Vanuatu (Port Vila 2009 [1979]), 90. 113 Ibid.; PV/42, Minutes of Meeting, 6 Sep. 1979, 135, in ibid. 114 PV/30, Minutes of Meeting, 6 Aug. 1979, 90, in ibid. 115 Ibid. 116 Randall Hansen, 'The Kenyan Asians, British politics and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968', The Historical Journal, 42 (1999), 809–34; Randall Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration in Post-war Britain: the institutional origins of a multicultural nation (Oxford 2000), 153–78 and 197–201. 117 H3 'New Hebrides Christian Council of Churches Submission No. 4', Constitutional Committee, 246. 118 Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu (Port Vila 1980), Chapter 3, copy available at Parliament of Vanuatu, http://www.parliament.gov.vu/constitution.html (accessed 22 Nov. 2011). 119 Ibid. 120 D.A. Peters, notes of a meeting held in the office of Mr Smedley NTD of FCO (Clive House), 15 Aug. 1979, 'New Hebrides: invalid registration of UK citizenship by Governor of Fiji under British Nationality Act 1948', Home Office (hereinafter HO), 213/1614, TNA: PRO, Kew, London. 121 The concept of patriality was introduced into British nationality law through the Immigration Act 1971. It made a distinction between CICCs who had the right of abode in the UK (patrials) and those who did not (non-patrials), including CUKCs who had acquired that status by registration in the colonies. Fransman, Fransman's British Nationality Law, 94–6. 122 D.A. Peters, 15 Aug. 1979, HO, 213/1614. 123 PV/25, Minutes of Meeting, 30 July 1979, ibid., 71. 124 Van Trease, The Politics of Land in Vanuatu, 258.
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