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RETRACTED: Pharmacologic Blockade of 5-Lipoxygenase Improves the Amyloidotic Phenotype of an Alzheimer's Disease Transgenic Mouse Model

2011; Elsevier BV; Volume: 178; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1016/j.ajpath.2010.12.032

1525-2191

Jin Chu, Domenico Praticò,

Tryptophan and brain disorders

The 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) enzyme is widely distributed within the central nervous system. Previous works showed that this protein is up-regulated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and that its genetic absence results in a reduction of amyloid β (Aβ) levels in Tg2576 mice. In the present study, we examined the effect of 5-LO pharmacological inhibition on the amyloidotic phenotype of these mice. Aβ deposition in the brains of mice receiving zileuton, a selective and specific 5-LO inhibitor, was significantly reduced when compared with control Tg2576 mice receiving vehicle. This reduction was associated with a similar decrease in brain Aβ peptides levels. Zileuton treatment did not induce any change in the steady state levels of amyloid-β precursor protein (APP), BACE1 or ADAM10. By contrast, it resulted in a significant reduction of presenilin 1 (PSEN1, alias PS1), nicastrin (NCSTN) , presenilin enhancer 2 homolog (PSNEN, alias, Pen-2), and anterior pharynx defective 1 (APH-1), the four components of the γ-secretase complex—at the protein and message level. Furthermore, in vitro studies confirmed that zileuton prevents Aβ formation by modulating γ-secretase complex levels without affecting Notch signaling. These data establish a functional role for 5-LO in the pathogenesis of AD-like amyloidosis, whereby it modulates the γ-secretase pathway. They suggest that pharmacological inhibition of 5-LO could provide a novel therapeutic opportunity for AD. The 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) enzyme is widely distributed within the central nervous system. Previous works showed that this protein is up-regulated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and that its genetic absence results in a reduction of amyloid β (Aβ) levels in Tg2576 mice. In the present study, we examined the effect of 5-LO pharmacological inhibition on the amyloidotic phenotype of these mice. Aβ deposition in the brains of mice receiving zileuton, a selective and specific 5-LO inhibitor, was significantly reduced when compared with control Tg2576 mice receiving vehicle. This reduction was associated with a similar decrease in brain Aβ peptides levels. Zileuton treatment did not induce any change in the steady state levels of amyloid-β precursor protein (APP), BACE1 or ADAM10. By contrast, it resulted in a significant reduction of presenilin 1 (PSEN1, alias PS1), nicastrin (NCSTN) , presenilin enhancer 2 homolog (PSNEN, alias, Pen-2), and anterior pharynx defective 1 (APH-1), the four components of the γ-secretase complex—at the protein and message level. Furthermore, in vitro studies confirmed that zileuton prevents Aβ formation by modulating γ-secretase complex levels without affecting Notch signaling. These data establish a functional role for 5-LO in the pathogenesis of AD-like amyloidosis, whereby it modulates the γ-secretase pathway. They suggest that pharmacological inhibition of 5-LO could provide a novel therapeutic opportunity for AD. The enzyme 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid to 5-hydroxyperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE) and subsequently to 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE), which can be then metabolized into different leukotrienes.1Radmark O. Werz O. Steinhilber D. Samuelsson B. 5-Lipoxygenase: regulation of expression and enzyme activity.Trends Biochem Sci. 2007; 32: 332-341Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (375) Google Scholar The 5-LO enzyme is widely expressed in the central nervous system, where it localizes mainly in neuronal cells. Its presence has been documented in various regions of the brain, including hippocampus and cerebellum, where significant changes in its levels have been associated with aging.2Lammers C.H. Schweitzer P. Facchinetti P. Arrang J.M. Madamba S.G. Siggins G.R. Piomelli D. Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase and its activating protein: prominent hippocampal expression and role in somatostatin signaling.J Neurochem. 1996; 66: 147-152Crossref PubMed Scopus (100) Google Scholar, 3Uz T. Pesold C. Longone P. Manev H. Age-associated up-regulation of neuronal 5-lipoxygenase expression: putative role in neuronal vulnerability.FASEB J. 1998; 123: 439-449Google Scholar, 4Chinnici C.M. Yao Y. Praticò D. The 5-lipoxygenase enzymatic pathway in the mouse brain: young versus old.Neurobiol Aging. 2007; 28: 1457-1462Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar Since aging is one of the strongest risk factors for developing sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), it is possible that this pathway is involved in its pathogenesis.5Praticò D. Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease: a reappraisal.Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008; 29: 609-615Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (421) Google Scholar To this end, we recently showed that AD brains had higher 5-LO protein levels than did healthy controls.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar Further, we investigated the effect of 5-LO-targeted gene disruption on the brain amyloid β (Aβ) pathology of Tg2576 mice, a model of AD-like amyloidosis, by crossing them with 5-LO-deficient mice. In that study, we found that the genetic absence of 5-LO resulted in a significant reduction in brain Aβ levels and deposition.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar In line with these findings, 5-LO immunoreactivity has been reported increased in hippocampi of AD patients versus controls, and polymorphism of the 5-LO promoter can influence the age of onset of the disease.7Ikonomovic M.D. Abrahamson E.E. Uz T. Manev H. Dekosky S.T. Increased 5-lipooxygenase imunoreactivity in hippocampus of patients with Alzheimer's disease.J Histochem Cytochem. 2008; 56: 1065-1073Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 8Qu T. Manev R. Manev H. 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) promoter polymorphism in patients with early-onset and late-onset Alzheimer's disease.J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001; 13: 304-305Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar To further test the hypothesis that 5-LO plays a functional role in the development of the amyloidotic phenotype of the Tg2576 mice, in the current study we chronically administered these animals a selective and specific orally available inhibitor of 5-LO activation, ie, zileuton.9Riccioni G. Di Ilio C. Conti P. Theoharides T.C. D'Orazio N. Advances in therapy with anti-leukotriene drugs.Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2004; 34: 379-387PubMed Google Scholar At the end of the study we observed that compared with mice receiving vehicle, the group treated with zileuton had a significant reduction in the amount of Aβ formed and deposited in their brains. These changes were not associated with any significant modification of total APP, BACE1 or ADAM10 protein levels. By contrast, we observed that the group administered zileuton had a significant reduction in the four components of the γ-secretase complex at the protein and message level. These results were further confirmed in vitro by using neuronal cells stably expressing the human APP Swedish mutant, ie, neuro-2 A neuroblastoma (N2a)-APPswe. All animal procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Usage Committee and took place in accordance with the National Institutes of Health guidelines. Tg2576 transgenic mice expressing human APP with the Swedish mutation (K670N/M671L) were used in these studies.10Hsiao K. Chapman P. Nilsen S. Eckman C. Harigaya Y. Younkin S. Yang F. Cole G. Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice.Science. 1996; 274: 99-102Crossref PubMed Scopus (3688) Google Scholar They were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis using tail DNA, were kept in a pathogen-free environment on a 12-hour light/dark cycle, and had access to food and water ad libitum. All the experiments presented in this paper were performed with female mice. Starting at 7 months of age, mice were randomized to receive zileuton (200 mg/L) (n = 10) or vehicle (n = 8) in their drinking water for 8 months until they were 15 months old. Considering that each mouse drinks on average 3 to 4 mL/day of water, the final concentration of the active drug was approximately 0.6 to 0.8 mg/day. To determine whether zileuton was also effective in young animals when they show high levels of soluble Aβ in the brain but no sign of Aβ deposition, 4-month-old female Tg2576 mice were dosed orally twice per day by gavage with zileuton at the same concentration or vehicle for a week, and brain levels of SDS-soluble Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 were measured (n = 3 each group). During the study, mice in both groups gained weight regularly, and no significant difference in weight was detected between the two groups. No macroscopic effect on the overall general health was observed in the animals receiving the active treatment. Postmortem examination showed no sign of macroscopic pathology in any of the organs considered (ie, spleen, liver, thymus, ileum). After sacrifice, animals were perfused with ice-cold 0.9% PBS, and the brain was removed and dissected into two halves by midsagittal dissection. One was immediately stored at −80°C for biochemistry assays or total RNA extraction, and the other was immediately immersed in 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/L PBS (pH 7.6) overnight for immunohistochemistry studies. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) from Tg2576 (5-LO+/+), and Tg2576/5-LO−/−) were obtained as previously described.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar Briefly, pregnant female mice were sacrificed 12 to 13 days after vaginal plugs were observed. Uterine horns were dissected out, briefly rinsed in 70% ethanol, and placed in a sterile Petri dish containing PBS without bivalent cations. Each embryo was isolated and separated from its placenta and surrounding membranes. The head, liver, and kidneys were removed and used for genotyping, and a cell suspension of the remaining tissue was prepared by trituration in 1 mL trypsin-EDTA. After gentle shaking at 37°C for 15 minutes with 100 Kunitz units/mL of DNase, the resulting cell suspensions were incubated on ice for an additional 15 minutes and then subjected to low-speed centrifugation (500 × g) for 5 minutes. The resulting cell pellet was plated onto a 10-cm dish with prewarmed MEF medium (Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium with high glucose, 10% fetal bovine serum, L-glutamine (200 mmol/L), and penicillin/streptomycin). The culture medium was replaced with fresh Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium after 24 hours. After two to three passages, MEFs were genotyped again to avoid possible errors in initial genotyping due to maternal tissue contamination. APP (5-LO+/+) and APP/5-LO−/− MEFs were always used; they were incubated with zileuton or AA-861. At the end of the incubation, conditioned media were collected for Aβ analysis, as described below. Immunostaining was performed as reported previously by our group.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar, 11Zhuo J.M. Portugal G. Kruger W. Wang H. Gould T. Praticò D. Diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemia increases amyloid-β formation and deposition in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.Current Alz Res. 2010; 7: 140-149Crossref PubMed Scopus (71) Google Scholar, 12Zhuo J.M. Praticò D. Acceleration of brain amyloidosis in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model by a folate, vitamin B6 and B12-deficient diet.Exp Gerontol. 2010; 45: 195-201Crossref PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar Serial 6-μm-thick coronal sections were mounted on 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane-coated slides. Every eighth section from the habenular to the posterior commissure (eight to ten sections per animal) was examined using unbiased stereological principles. The sections were deparaffinized, hydrated, and pretreated with formic acid (88%) and subsequently with 3% H2O2 in methanol. Sections were blocked in 2% fetal bovine serum before incubation with primary antibody 4G8 (Wako Chemicals USA, Inc., Richmond, VA) overnight at 4°C. Subsequently, sections were incubated with biotinylated anti-mouse IgG (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) and then developed by using the avidin-biotin complex method (Vector Laboratories) with 3,3′-diaminobenzidine as a chromogen. Light microscopic images were used to calculate the area occupied by Aβ immunoreactivity using the software Image-Pro Plus for Windows version 5.0 (Media Cybernetics, Bethesda, MD). The threshold optical density that discriminated staining from background was determined and kept constant for all quantifications. The area occupied by Aβ immunoreactivity was measured by the software and divided by the total area of interest to obtain the percentage area of Aβ immunoreactivity. Mouse brain homogenates were sequentially extracted first in radio-immunoprecipitation assay buffer for the Aβ soluble fractions and then in formic acid for the Aβ insoluble fractions as previously described.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar, 11Zhuo J.M. Portugal G. Kruger W. Wang H. Gould T. Praticò D. Diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemia increases amyloid-β formation and deposition in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.Current Alz Res. 2010; 7: 140-149Crossref PubMed Scopus (71) Google Scholar, 12Zhuo J.M. Praticò D. Acceleration of brain amyloidosis in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model by a folate, vitamin B6 and B12-deficient diet.Exp Gerontol. 2010; 45: 195-201Crossref PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar For young animals, SDS only was used for extraction. Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 levels were assayed by a sensitive sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (Wako Chemicals USA, Inc.). Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) levels were assayed in brain homogenates and supernatants by a specific and sensitive ELISA kit (Assay Designs Inc., Ann Arbor, MI), following the manufacturer's instruction and as previously described.4Chinnici C.M. Yao Y. Praticò D. The 5-lipoxygenase enzymatic pathway in the mouse brain: young versus old.Neurobiol Aging. 2007; 28: 1457-1462Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar, 6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar Radio-immunoprecipitation assay extracts from brain homogenates or cell lysates were used for Western blot analyses. Samples were electrophoresed on 10% Bis-Tris gels or 3% to 8% Tris-acetate gel (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA) according to the molecular weight of the target molecule, transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes (Bio-Rad Laboratories), and then incubated with appropriate primary antibodies as follows: anti-APP N-terminal raised against amino acids 66-81 for total APP (22C11, 1:1500 dilution, Chemicon International, Temecula, CA), anti-PS1 (1:200 dilution, IBL America, Minneapolis, MN), anti-ADAM10 (1:500 dilution, Chemicon International), anti-PSEN1 (1:500 dilution, Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO), anti-nicastrin (1:200 dilution, Cell Signaling Technology, Danvers, MA), anti-APH-1 (1:200 dilution, Millipore, Billerica, MA), anti-Pen-2 (1:150 dilution, Invitrogen Corporation, Carlsbad, CA), anti-Notch intracellular domain (NICD) (1:500 dilution, Cell Signaling Technology), anti-IDE N-terminal (1:1000 dilution, EMD4 Biosciences, San Diego, CA), anti-neprilysin (1:150 dilution, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, CA), anti-apoE (1:100 dilution, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), anti-CREB (1:200 dilution, Cell Signaling Technology) and anti-p-CREB (1:200 dilution, Cell Signaling Technology), anti-Sp1 (1:200 dilution, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), anti-β-actin (1:4000 dilution, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.). After three washings with T-tris-buffered saline, membranes were incubated with IRDye 800CW- or IRDye 680CW-labeled secondary antibodies (LI-COR Biosciences, Lincoln, NE) at 22°C for 1 hour. Signals were developed with Odyssey Infrared Imaging Systems (LI-COR Biosciences). β-Actin was always used as internal loading control. RNA was extracted and purified using the RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA), as previously described.4Chinnici C.M. Yao Y. Praticò D. The 5-lipoxygenase enzymatic pathway in the mouse brain: young versus old.Neurobiol Aging. 2007; 28: 1457-1462Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar, 6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar Briefly, 1 μg of total RNA was used to synthesize cDNA in a 20-μL reaction using the RT2 First Strand Kit for RT-PCR (SABiosciences, Frederick, MD). Mouse Bace1, PS1, nicastrin (Ncstn), APH1, and Pen2 genes were amplified by using the corresponding primers designed and synthesized by SA Biosciences. β-Actin was always used as an internal control gene to normalize for the amount of RNA. Real-time PCR was performed in an Eppendorf ep Realplex Thermal cycler (Eppendorf, Hauppauge, NY). Two microliters of cDNA were added to 25 μl of SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, Carlsbad, CA). Each sample was run in duplicate, and analysis of relative gene expression was done by using the 2−ΔΔCt method.13Kenneth J.L. Thomas D.S. Analysis of relative gene expression data using Real Time Quantitative PCR and the 2-ΔΔCt method.Method. 2002; 25: 402-408Google Scholar Briefly, the relative change in gene expression was calculated by subtracting the threshold cycle (ΔCt) of the target genes from the internal control gene (β-actin). Based on the fact that the amount of cDNA doubles in each PCR cycle (assuming a PCR efficiency of 100%), the final fold-change in gene expression was calculated by using the following formula: relative change = 2−ΔΔCt.13Kenneth J.L. Thomas D.S. Analysis of relative gene expression data using Real Time Quantitative PCR and the 2-ΔΔCt method.Method. 2002; 25: 402-408Google Scholar N2a (neuro-2 A neuroblastoma) cells stably expressing human APP carrying the K670N/M671L Swedish mutation (APPswe) were grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/mL penicillin, 100 μg/mL streptomycin (Cellgro, Herdon, VA), and 400 μg/mL G418 (Invitrogen Corporation, at 37°C in the presence of 5% CO2 as previously described.14Succol F. Praticò D. A role for 12/15 lipoxygenase in the amyloid beta precursor protein metabolism.J Neurochem. 2007; 103: 380-387PubMed Google Scholar For each experiment, equal numbers of cells were plated in six well plates; 24 hours later media were removed and fresh media containing either zileuton (1, 10, 50, 100 μmol/L) or vehicle were added. After 24 hours' incubation, supernatants were collected for Aβ and LTB4 assays, and cell pellets were harvested in lytic buffer for immunoblot analyses, as described in the previous paragraphs. For transfection studies, N2a-APPswe cells were transfected with 1 μg myc-tagged mΔE-Notch-1 complementary DNA overnight (a generous gift from Dr. L. D′Adamio, Albert Einstein Medical College, New York, NY) by using Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen Corporation). The media were removed and fresh media containing L-685458 (1 μmol/L), zileuton, or vehicle were added. After 24 hours incubation, cells lysates were collected and NICD expression levels assayed by Western blot analysis. Data analyses were performed using SigmaStat for Windows version 3.00 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL). Each replicate for the in vitro studies are independent experiments. Statistical comparisons of single parameters between two groups were performed by independent Student's t-test. Comparisons between more than two groups were performed by one-way analysis of variance. Analysis of variances that showed P < 0.05 were followed by Bonferroni's post hoc test for the pairwise comparisons. Results are expressed as mean ± SEM. Starting at 7 months of age, Tg2576 mice were randomized to receive zileuton (200 mg/L) or vehicle in their drinking water for 8 months before being sacrificed. Considering that each mouse drinks on average 3 to 4 mL of water per day, the final concentration of the active drug was approximately 0.6 to 0.8 mg/day. By the end of the study, body weight, total plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood cell counts showed no difference between the two groups (data not shown). Compared with vehicle controls, mice receiving zileuton had a significant reduction in their brain levels of LTB4, a major metabolic product of 5-LO activation (136.54 ± 6.28 vs 74.38 ± 11.06 ng/mg, P < 0.01). As expected for their age, 15-month-old Tg2576 mice on placebo showed elevated levels of both soluble (radio-immunoprecipitation assay buffer-extractable) and insoluble (formic acid-extractable) Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 in the cerebral cortex as well as in the hippocampus, which were significantly reduced in mice receiving zileuton (Figure 1A). Amyloid deposits were widely distributed in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of Tg2576 mice at 15 months of age, as previously reported.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar, 10Hsiao K. Chapman P. Nilsen S. Eckman C. Harigaya Y. Younkin S. Yang F. Cole G. Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice.Science. 1996; 274: 99-102Crossref PubMed Scopus (3688) Google Scholar To determine the effect of chronic zileuton administration on brain amyloid deposition, the areas occupied by 4G8-immunopositive reactions were analyzed. Comparison of the Aβ-immunopositive areas between placebo and zileuton-treated groups revealed a statistically significant reduction of the amyloid burden in the treated Tg2576 mice (Figure 1B). Zileuton was also effective in reducing Aβ levels in younger animals (ie, 4-month-old female Tg2576 mice) when they were orally dosed for a week. Thus, under this condition, we observed that the drug significantly reduced levels of Aβ1-40 (14.3 ± 0.88 vs 10.0 ± 0.5 pg/mg, P = 0.01) and Aβ1-42 (9.0 ± 0.5 vs 5.1 ± 0.5 pg/mg, P = 0.005) compared with mock-treated animals. Since Aβ is the final product of the proteolytic processing of its own precursor, the APP, we next investigated whether the chronic pharmacological treatment was associated with an alteration on the expression levels of this protein. As shown in Figure 2,A and B, we found that there was no difference in total APP levels between the two groups of mice. To assess the effect of zileuton on APP processing, we investigated the steady state levels of the main enzyme proteases involved: α-secretase (ADAM10), β-secretase (BACE1), and the four components of the γ-secretase complex by Western blot analysis. As shown in Figure 2, A and B, no significant difference in the levels of ADAM10 and BACE1 was observed between the two groups of mice. By contrast, we observed that mice receiving zileuton had a significant reduction in the steady state levels of all the four components of the γ-secretase complex, PS1, nicastrin (NCSTN), Pen2, and APH-1 (Figure 2, A and B). Furthermore, quantitative real-time RT-PCR analyses revealed that in the same mice the mRNA levels of these four proteins were significantly reduced (Figure 2C). By contrast, no change was observed in the BACE1 mRNA levels (Figure 2C). Since the final amount of Aβ assayed is the result of production and degradation mechanisms, we next analyzed two of the major proteases involved in its catabolism: ie, insulin-degrading enzyme and neprilysin.15Leissring M.A. Farris W. Chang A.Y. Walsh D.M. Wu X. Sunh X. Frosch M.P. Selkoe D.J. Enhanced proteolysis of beta-amyloid in APP transgenic mice prevents plaque formation, secondary pathology, and premature death.Neuron. 2003; 40: 1087-1093Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (617) Google Scholar Steady state levels of both proteins measured by Western blot analysis were similar between the two groups of mice (data not shown). A similar result was observed when we measured levels of the apolipoprotein E , which has been implicated in the clearance of Aβ from the central nervous system by acting as chaperone (data not shown).16Guenette S.Y. Mechanisms of Abeta clearance and catabolism.Neuromolecular Med. 2003; 4: 147-160Crossref PubMed Scopus (28) Google Scholar The data collected so far suggest that zileuton, by blocking 5-LO activation, regulates the γ-secretase complex expression at the transcriptional level. Since previous studies have shown that 5-LO, by producing hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids, can influence the activation state of the cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), a transcriptional factor that regulates gene expression,17Dronadula N. Rizvi F. Blaskova E. Li Q. Rao G.N. Involvement of cAMP-response element binding protein-1 in arachidonic-induced vascular smooth muscle cell motility.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 767-777Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar we wanted to test if this was also the case in our system. Compared with mice on placebo, we found that mice treated with zileuton showed a statistically significant decrease in the steady state levels of total CREB and its phosphorylated form at Ser133. However, zileuton did not significantly affect the steady state levels of Sp1, another transcription factor (Figure 3). To further confirm the in vivo observation described above, we next embarked on a series of in vitro experiments. N2a-APPswe cells were incubated with zileuton for 24 hours at different concentrations (1, 10, 50, 100 μmol/L) or vehicle. At the end of this period, conditioned media showed that compared with controls, zileuton dose-dependently reduced LTB4 and Aβ1-40 formed by these cells (Figure 4 A). This reduction was associated with a significant decrease in the steady state levels of the PS1, nicastrin, APH-1 and Pen2 proteins (Figure 4B). By contrast, zileuton did not influence the protein levels for APP, BACE1, and ADAM10 (Figure 4B). To substantiate the specificity of the action of zileuton, we next used MEFs isolated from Tg2576 or Tg2576 mice genetically deficient for 5-LO (Tg2576/5-LO−/−) and incubated them with increasing concentrations of zileuton. We observed that only the cells with the 5-LO available (Tg2576) but not the ones lacking the enzyme responded with a significant reduction in Aβ levels to the presence of the active drug (see Supplemental Figure S1 at http://ajp.amjpathol.org). A similar effect was also observed when another structurally unrelated 5-LO inhibitor, AA-861, was used9Riccioni G. Di Ilio C. Conti P. Theoharides T.C. D'Orazio N. Advances in therapy with anti-leukotriene drugs.Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2004; 34: 379-387PubMed Google Scholar (see Supplemental Figure S1 at http://ajp.amjpathol.org). Similar to the in vivo experiments, we observed that incubation of zileuton with N2a-APPswe cells resulted in a significant decrease in the expression levels of CREB and p-CREB. By contrast, the presence of the drug did not induce any significant alteration in the levels of another transcription factor, ie, Sp1 (Figure 5A). Since Notch is another possible substrate for γ-secretase proteolytic activity, we next tested whether this pathway was affected by the treatment. To this end, we assessed the effect of zileuton on γ-secretase-mediated cleavages of Notch proteolytic pathway. N2a-APPswe cells were transfected with myc-tagged mΔE-Notch-1 complementary DNA. After incubating them with zileuton at the same concentrations that significantly reduced γ-secretase components, we assessed the expression levels of NICD by Western blot analysis. As a positive control, cells were incubated with L685458, a potent γ-secretase inhibitor.18Geling A. Steiner H. Willem M. Bally-Cuif L. Haas C. A γ-secretase inhibitor blocks Notch signaling in vivo and causes a severe neurogenic phenotype in zebrafish.EMBO Rep. 2002; 3: 688-694Crossref PubMed Scopus (425) Google Scholar While the latter dramatically reduced the levels of NICD, no significant changes were observed at any of the concentrations of zileuton used (Figure 5B). The data presented in this study demonstrate that pharmacological blockade of 5-LO significantly reduces brain Aβ formation and deposition in the Tg2576 mouse model of AD and thereby provide strong evidence that this enzymatic pathway is a novel therapeutic target for modulating amyloidogenesis in vivo. Previous studies reported that 5-LO expression is increased in rodent brain with aging, especially in the cortex and hippocampus, two regions that are known to be more susceptible to neurodegeneration.19Götz J. Schonrock N. Vissel B. Ittner L.M. Alzheimer's disease selective vulnerability and modeling in transgenic mice.J Alzheimers Dis. 2009; 18: 243-251PubMed Google Scholar This observation supports a possible biological link between 5-LO and neurodegenerative diseases, whose strongest risk factor is aging. In line with this hypothesis, 5-LO immunoreactivity is increased in hippocampi of AD patients versus controls, and polymorphism of the 5-LO promoter can influence the age of onset of the disease.7Ikonomovic M.D. Abrahamson E.E. Uz T. Manev H. Dekosky S.T. Increased 5-lipooxygenase imunoreactivity in hippocampus of patients with Alzheimer's disease.J Histochem Cytochem. 2008; 56: 1065-1073Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 8Qu T. Manev R. Manev H. 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) promoter polymorphism in patients with early-onset and late-onset Alzheimer's disease.J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001; 13: 304-305Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar Previous work from our group has shown that genetic deficiency of 5-LO results in a significant amelioration of the amyloidotic phenotype of Tg2576 mice, suggesting for the first time a functional role for this enzymatic pathway in modulating Aβ formation and deposition.6Firuzi O. Zhuo J. Chinnici C.M. Wisniewski T. PraticÒ D. 5-Lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.FASEB J. 2008; 22: 1169-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar In the present study, we wanted to further extend this observation by using a pharmacological approach. Thus, using zileuton, an orally available selective and specific 5-LO inhibitor, we demonstrated that this therapeutic approach results in a significant reduction of brain amylodotic phenotype that is characteristic of Tg2576 mice. In an effort to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the Aβ reduction in the mice receiving zileuton, we assessed the steady state levels of APP and the levels of the three most important proteases involved in its processing, ie, α-, β- and γ-secretase, which ultimately result in formation of Aβ peptides. We found that total APP, BACE1 and ADAM10 protein levels were unaltered by the drug, suggesting that the in vivo biological effects of zileuton are not mediated by an effect on the Aβ precursor or on its α- or β-cleavage proteolytic pathways. By contrast, we observed that all four components of the γ-secretase complex were significantly reduced by this treatment, supporting the hypothesis that this proteolytic pathway is specifically influenced by the active treatment. This observation suggests a different mechanism of action of this LO from the 12/15-LO isoform, which we previously showed modulates Aβ levels via a BACE1-dependent mechanism.14Succol F. Praticò D. A role for 12/15 lipoxygenase in the amyloid beta precursor protein metabolism.J Neurochem. 2007; 103: 380-387PubMed Google Scholar Interestingly, in association with a reduction in the steady state levels of those proteins, we observed that their correspondent mRNAs were also significantly decreased, suggesting a translational regulation by 5-LO of the genes codifying for the γ-secretase complex. Different potential transcriptional factor binding sites have been reported within the promoter regions of these genes. Among them, a CREB binding site has been shown to be essential for APH-1, Pen2, and PS1 transcriptional regulation.20Luo W.J. Wang H. Li H. Kim B.S. Shah S. Lee H.J. Thinakaram G. Kim T.W. Yu G. Xu H. PEN-2 and APH-1 coordinately regulate proteolytic processing of presenilin 1.J Biol Chem. 2003; 278: 7850-7854Crossref PubMed Scopus (210) Google Scholar, 21Wang R. Zhang Y. Sun P. Liu R. Zhang X. Zhang X. Xia K. Xia J. Xu H. Zhang Z. Transcriptional regulation of Pen-2, a key component of the γ-secretase complex, by CREB.Mol Cell Biol. 2006; 26: 1347-1354Crossref PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar In our studies, we found that compared with the vehicle group, mice receiving zileuton had a significant reduction in the levels of this transcription factor. By contrast, no difference between the two groups was observed when levels of Sp1, another transcription factor, were assayed, suggesting a specific effect of 5-LO on CREB. Taken together, these findings support the hypothesis that pharmacological blockade of 5-LO by modulating CREB levels results in a reduced transcription of the mRNAs for the four components of the γ-secretase complex, which ultimately is responsible for the reduction in Aβ formation. The specificity of the zileuton action was supported by the results obtained when using cells that are genetically deficient for 5-LO and by the use of another structurally unrelated 5-LO inhibitor. Thus, in the first case we observed that zileuton is not effective in the absence of 5-LO enzymatic activity and that incubation with AA-861, another 5-LO inhibitor, results in the same biological effect of Aβ reduction, but only in cells with 5-LO available. Aβ is a major component of the hallmark AD brain lesions, and understanding its production and clearance in the central nervous system is the focus of an enormous amount of work because it can help us to develop rational therapeutics to treat or prevent this disease. This peptide is generated from the sequential proteolytic processing of APP by the enzymes β- and γ-secretase.22Hardy J. Selkoe D.J. The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease: progress and problems on the road to therapeutics.Science. 2002; 297: 353-356Crossref PubMed Scopus (10960) Google Scholar The necessary role of γ-secretase in the pathogenesis of AD makes it a major target for drug development, with an enormous research effort focused on the ability to inhibit this enzyme complex. However, a key factor in establishing the clinical validity of γ-secretase inhibitors is the demonstration of a differential effect between APP processing and alternative substrate of this secretase, particularly the Notch signaling. Here, we demonstrate that the zileuton effect on the γ-secretase complex is completely independent of any effect on the Notch signaling pathway. This specific biological effect is in agreement with previous studies and in line with a modulator activity of this drug on the secretase. It supports the novel idea that it is possible to develop γ-secretase modulators that alter Aβ formation while preserving other important functions of the complex.23Wolfe M.S. Inhibition and modulation of γ-secretase for Alzheimer's disease.Neurotherapeutics. 2008; 5: 391-398Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar This observation makes any potential therapeutic application of 5-LO inhibitors, which could act as γ-secretase modulators, in AD a feasible one, without the potential toxicity of the classic inhibitors of the complex.24Searfoss G.H. Jordan W.H. Calligaro D.O. Galbreath E.J. Schirtzinger L.M. Berridge B.R. Gao H. Higgins M.A. May P.C. Ryan T.P. Adipsin, a biomarker of gastrointestinal toxicity mediated by a functional γ-secretase inhibitor.J Biol Chem. 2003; 278: 46107-46116Crossref PubMed Scopus (323) Google Scholar In conclusion, our studies establish the 5-LO enzymatic pathway as a novel therapeutic target for AD-like amyloidosis. They represent the successful completion of the initial step in the pipeline for preclinical development of 5-LO inhibitors as potential novel disease-modifying agents for AD. Download .doc (.05 MB) Help with doc files Supplemental Figure S1Effect of zileuton or AA-861 on Aβ production in MEFs obtained from Tg2576 or Tg2576/5-LO2− mice. Cells were treated with different concentrations of zileuton or AA-861 for 24 hours, conditioned media were collected, and Aβ1-40 were assayed. Values represent mean ± SEM (n = 3 per each condition; *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01)