The Repression of Soviet Koreans during the 1930s
2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 74; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1111/j.1540-6563.2012.00319.x
ISSN1540-6563
Autores Tópico(s)Korean Peninsula Historical and Political Studies
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes1. The author thanks Kees Boterbloem for translating this essay and Andrea Pittard, Ben Sperduto, and Kees Boterbloem for editing the article for an English‐language audience.2. In English, these repressions are often grouped under generic rubrics, such as dekulakization (occuring mainly 1929 to 1932), the Ukrainian, Kazak, and South‐Russian famines (in 1932 and 1933), and the Great Terror (of 1937 and 1938).3. In English, see, among others, Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939, Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 2001; Pavel Polian, Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR, Budapest: Central European UP, 2004. The Soviet Union had some 140 different ethnic groups within its borders, which were usually called “nations.”4. See for English‐language works detailing some of the Koreans' fate, Terry Martin, “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing,” Journal of Modern History 4, 1998: 813–61; Michael Gelb, “An Early Soviet Ethnic Deportation,” Russian Review 3, 1995: 389–412; Dae‐Sook Suh, ed., Koreans in the Soviet Union, Honolulu, HI: U. of Hawaii P., 1987.5. Apart from Polian, Nikolai Federovich Bugai wrote several books in which he discussed the fate of the Soviet Koreans; see, for example, N. F. Bugai, L. Beriia‐I. Stalinu: “Soglasno vashemu ukazaniiu . . .”, Moscow: Airo‐XX, 1995; N. F. Bugai et al., Chaeso Hanindŭl ŭi sunansa: haesŏl mit kwan gye kongmunsŏ, Kyŏnggido Sŏngnam‐si: Sejong Yŏn guso, 1996. See below for one of Bugai's key early articles on this topic.6. See A. S. Zakolodnaia, “Istoriia izuchenii pereseleniia na Dal'nii Vostok na sovremennom etape,” in Iu.V. Latushko, I. V. Stavrov, eds, Tikhookeanskaia Rossiia i strany ATR v izmeniaiushchemsia mire, Vladivostok: Nauka, 2009, 253–62: 258.7. Andrei Lan'kov, “Koreitsy SNG: stranitsy istorii,”Seul'skii vestnik, 13 February 2002 (available at: http://russedina.org/frontend/foreign/korea?id=16622, accessed 10 November 2011).8. Viktor Innokent'evich Diatlov, “Blagoveshchenskaia ‘utopiia’: iz istorii materializatsii fobii,” in S. A. Panarin, ed., Evraziia: liudi i mify, Moscow: Natalis, 2003, 123–141. The tsarist government considered all Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusyn) to be Russians.9. See for example Lev Nikolaevich Kniazev, Zalpy v taige, Vladivostok: Dal'nevostochmoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1976.10. The Japanese expedition forces left mainland Soviet territory in 1922, although elsewhere the civil war ended in the course of 1920.11. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow), fond 1235, opis' 130 (1935), delo 3, listy 20–1 [from here indicated as: GARF 1235/130 (1935)/3, ll. 20–1]. Fond means, more or less, “collection” in English; opis'“inventory”; delo“file”; and listy“pages.”12. Svetlana Georgievna Nam, Koreiskii natsional'nyi raion: Put' poiska issledovatelia, Moscow: Nauka‐Glavnaia redaktsiia vostochnoi literatury, 1991; Iosif Kim, Sovetskii koreiskii teatr, Alma‐Ata: Oner, 1992; Li U Khe, Kim En Un, eds, Belaia kniga o deportatsii koreiskogo naseleniia Rossii v 30–40kh godakh, Moscow: Moskovskaia konfederatsiia koreiskikh assotsiatsii, 1997, 50–1.13. GARF, 1318 (1922–1923)/670, l.64.14. Apart from the books noted in footnotes 2 and 3 above, see as well Aleksandr Nekrich, The Punished Peoples, New York: Norton, 1981; and Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s, New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2007, 125–140. It is not without interest to take note of a letter of January 1923 by Khan Men‐she to one of Stalin's assistants in the People's Commissariat of Nationalities; Khan refers to a plan by the Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist Party's Central Committee suggesting the banishment of all Koreans from the Maritime region (see Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga, 63). And this was in 1923!15. See German Kim, Istoriia immigratsii koreitsev, vol. 1: Vtoraia polovina xix v.‐1945g., Almaty: Daik‐press, 1999, 186.16. For a listing, see Kim, Istoriia, vol. 1, 185–6n105. Kim notes in the same place various American, Japanese, and Korean authors who pondered these deportations before the Soviet implosion of 1991.17. Kim, Istoriia, vol. 1, 190; see further ibid., 149–202.18. Even though the pre‐revolutionary antagonism between Koreans and Slavic settlers endured, leading to renewed local calls for Koreans' deportation (alleging that the Koreans were Japanese allies) in the late 1920s (see Martin, “Origins,” 834–5).19. As in the famous Virgin Lands Campaign that started in 1954.20. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe Sobranie Sochinenii, vol. 44, Moscow: Politizdat, 1967, 428.21. Most comprehensive is V. Danilov et al., eds, Tragediia Sovetskoi derevni: Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie, 5 vols, Moscow: Rosspen, 1999–2006. Part of this has been translated into English, see Lynne Viola et al., eds, The War Against the Soviet Peasantry, vol. 1, New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2005.22. Liudmila Ivanovna Proskurina, “Oktiabr'skaia revoliutsiia i ee vliianie na derevniu rossiiskogo Dal'nego Vostoka: kollektivizatsiia i ee posledstviia,” Rossiia i ATR 3, 2008: 22–30: 26.23. Kolkhoznik: Collective‐farm worker.24. Rossiiskii Gosudartsvennyi Istoricheskii Arkhiv Dal'nego Vostoka (Russian State Historical Archive of the Far East, Vladivostok) [from here: RGIA DV], 2458/1/216, l.83.25. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Khabarovskogo Kraia (State Archive of Khabarovsk Region, Khabarovsk)[from here: GAKhK] P2/2–4/169, ll.78–9.26. GARF, 1235/130 (1935)/3, ll.20–21.27. Nam, Koreiskii natsional'nyi raion, 7.28. Ibid.29. As relayed by Kim Yun‐Sen (d. 2007) in a conversation with the author and in Ussuriisk in 2005.30. NKVD: Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennykh Del, People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs, under whose authority fell the Soviet security organs in the second half of the 1930s.31. Vladimir Baturov, “Repressii protiv Kitaitsev v stalinskom Sovetskom Soiuze,”Velikaia epokha, 27 April 2010, 1–2. (available at: http://www.epochtimes.ru/content/view/36457/34/, accessed 12 November 2011).32. OGPU: Ob'edinennoe Gosudarstvennoe Politicheskoe Upravlenie, or United State Political Directorate, was succeeded by the NKVD in 1934; Proskurina, “Oktiabr'skaia revoliutsiia i ee vliianie,” 26.33. GARF 1318 (1922–1923)/670, l.64. See as well Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga, 63; and Martin, “Origins,” 828, 833–4.34. See for more Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga. This “White Book” details much of the unfolding of the tragedy of the Soviet Koreans' deportations, from Stalin and Molotov's decree ordering the deportation to various communications between Ezhov and local NKVD chiefs as well as between Ezhov and the other Soviet leaders (see ibid., 64–5, 73—including the note–, 82, 89–92, 94, 98–9, 101, 105, 114–15). The Communist Party's Politburo was the highest political body in the Soviet Union, responsible for all key decisions of the Soviet regime (even if after 1929 in practice many of these decisions were made by Stalin alone).35. In 1936 and 1937, the Great Terror at first targeted groups of Party members who allegedly had formed illegal opposition groups against Stalin and his cronies, and were often linked to (former) opponents of Stalin's regime such as L. D. Trotsky (1879–1940), G. E. Zinov'ev (1883–1936), L. B. Kamen'ev, N. I. Bukharin (1888–1938), and A. I. Rykov (1881–1938). Others were accused of conspiring with monarchists, Socialist‐Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, or various other opponents of the Bolsheviks of the pre‐revolutionary and revolutionary periods.36. Lan'kov, “Koreitsy SNG.”37. Aleksandr Stepanovich Suturin, Delo kraevogo masshtaba, Khabarovsk: Khabarovskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1991, 188.38. Subsequently, Liushkov defected to the Japanese (NB!) and actively collaborated with Japanese counterintelligence's work against his motherland. He was murdered in 1945 in Dairen by Japanese officers when he refused to commit suicide.39. Pravda, 16 April 1937, 1; I. Volodin, “Inostrannyi shpionazh na sovetskom Dal'men Vostoke,” Pravda, 23 April 1937, 1.40. Volodin, “Inostrannyi shpionazh,” 1.41. K. Kirillov, “Shpiony nekoi derzhavy,”Izvestiia, 27 June 1937, 1. The skepticism regarding the information wielded by the 1934 Soviet intelligence agencies in the quotation (“unknown”) betrays the fact that those preceding Ezhov's crowd in the NKVD were by mid‐1937 considered to have been duplicitous foreign agents. For more on the trials against Koreans during the middle of the 1930s, see Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga, 22–3.42. N. Rubin and Ia. Serebrov, “O podryvnoi deiatel'nosti fashistskikh razvedok v SSSR i zadachakh bor'by s neiu,” Pravda, 2930 July 1937, 1.43. Leonid Zakovskii, “O nekotorykh metodakh i priemakh inostrannykh razvedyvatel'nykh organov i ikh trotskisto‐bukharinskoi agentury,” in S. Uranov et al., O metodakh i priemakh inostrannykh razvedyvatel'nykh organov i ikh trotskistsko‐bukharinskoi agentury, Moscow‐Leningrad: Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1937 (available at: http://vault.exmachina.ru/spy/3/, accessed 15 November 2011). L. M. Zakovskii (1894–1938) was then chief of the Leningrad NKVD.44. Ibid.45. Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Archive of the President of the Russian Federation, Moscow) 3/58/139, 1–2 (Protokol no.52).46. Ibid.47. See Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga, 64–92.48. GARF 1235/130 (1935)/3, ll.20–1; see as welll Michael Ellmann, “Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments,” Europe-Asia Studies 7, 2002: 1151–72: 1158, 1163.49. The grounds for this estimate are the numerical size of the repressed families, the number of people per family as calculated according to the total number of people and of families. It is in addition important to take into account that these numbers may be lower. One of my relatives was deported to Central Asia in 1937, but three of his family members went to China.50. See Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga, 64–5, 68–71, 94.51. GARF 5446/57/52, l.29; 5446sch/29/48, ll.63–4; 5446sch/29/51, l.16.52. GARF 5446/57/52, l.39.53. Li, Kim, eds, Belaia kniga, 90–2, 103–4, 106–12.54. N. F. Bugai, “Vyselenie sovetskikh koreitsev s Dal'nego Vostoka,”Voprosy istorii 5, 1994, 141–8.55. Sergei Mukhanov, “Deportatsiia koreitsev s Dal'nego Vostoka. ‘Ia vyzhila tol'ko blagodaria liubvi i zabote roditelei’,”Smolenskaia gazeta, 1 February 2011 (available at: http://www.smolgazeta.ru/history/5859‐deportaciya‐korejcev‐s‐dalnego‐vostoka‐ya‐vyzhila.html, accessed 16 November 2011).56. Lan'kov, “Koreitsy SNG.”57. Mukhanov, “Deportatsiia koreitsev.”58. Conversation between Liubov Khvan and the author in Ussuriisk in 2009.59. GARF 5446sch/29/49, ll. 29–30.60. GARF 5446sch/29/49, l. 35.61. Bugai, “Vyselenie sovetskikh koreitsev,” 147–8.62. Arkhiv Ussuriiskogo Gorodskogo Okruga, Fond Primorskogo Sel'skokhoziaistvennogo Instituta (Archive of Ussuriisk City County, Collection of the Primorye Agricultural Institute, city of Ussuriisk), “Godovoi otchet o rabote instituta po osnovnoi deiatel'nosti za 1957–1958 gg.”Additional informationNotes on contributorsAlexander KimAlexander Kim is an Associate Professor at Primorye State Agricultural Academy, Institute of Humanitarian Education in the Department of History and Humanitarian education. His recent publications include, “Relations between Bohai and Silla from the Seventh to the Ninth Century: A Critical Analysis,” Acta Orientalia, 3, 2011, 345–56, and “On the Origin of the Jurchen People (A Study based on Russian Sources),” Central Asiatic Journal, 55, 2011, 165–76.
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