Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

A VOYAGE TO FREEDOM

2009; Routledge; Volume: 37; Issue: 109 Linguagem: Indonésio

10.1080/13639810903269342

1469-8382

G.L. Koster,

Education and Islamic Studies

Abstract This article traces how Harun Aminurrashid's postcolonial novel Panglima Awang ( Commander Awang, 1957) gives imaginative support to the struggle of the Malays for independence by rewriting and thus undercutting one of the greatest tales of exploration justifying European colonialism, that of the circumnavigation of the world by Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães) between 1519 and 1521. Instead of Magellan, Harun's novel makes his trusted Malay slave Enrique its hero, giving him the Malay name Panglima Awang and describing him as of the calibre of a Hang Tuah. It rewrites the original tale on the pattern of a number of literary genres such as the Panji romance. The novel thus turns into an allegory of the Malay historical experience of colonialism in both its purely exploitative (Portuguese, Dutch) and its ethical manifestation (British), which warns the Malays against losing their identity by associating with humane colonialism. It also evokes the colonial boy's adventure tale. By parodying its quest through the heart of darkness it contradicts the colonialist enabling myths of the superiority and burden of the white man and the laziness of the natives. As a roman à clef the novel may be seen as a tribute to Harun's former British headmaster, T.O. Dussek, at Sultan Idris Teachers Training College. The article closes by considering to what extent the novel escapes the tendency, perceived by western critics of Malay literature, towards a stereotyped, ethnocentric, myth-based depiction of the ethnic Other. Notes ∗This article was written as part of my research project concerning the role of the Portuguese in Malay narrative, funded by the Fundação de Ciência e Tecnologia, Lisbon. 1The standard biography of Magalhães is still Guillemard Citation(1890). About the main studies of his life see Torodash (Citation1995: 11–16). For a summary of the story of the circumnavigation, see the appendix 'De reis van Fernão de Magalhães' in Wickeren (Citation2000: 197–246). We owe much of what we know about Enrique (the Black) to the journal of the circumnavigation kept by one of the members of the expedition, Antonio Pigafetta. For an English translation of it, see Pigafetta Citation1969. 2 Panglima Awang was first published in 1958. Unable to get that edition I have used the earliest one available to me, Harun Aminurrashid (Citation1967). Comparison of the 1967 edition with the translation into English of the novel, published in Harun Aminurrashid Citation(1961), suggests that the 1967 edition is, apart from some minor editing, still quite close to the first one. 3Harun's Foreword does not indicate where he found the two newspaper articles. Matheson Hooker (Citation1999: 8) has pointed out that for the Malay historical dimension of his novel Harun relied on the general outline of the Sejarah Melayu (Sulalat as-Salatin) as we find it in the Shellabear version (Shellabear Citation1986). 4Since the term humanitarianism seems to refer to an ethics of charity rather than to a philosophical conviction I have here and elsewhere in this article preferred to speak of Harun's humanism. 5For his nomination as orang besar by King Humabon, see Harun Aminurrashid (Citation1961: 103) and Harun Aminurrashid (Citation1967: 168). 6Throughout Hikayat Hang Tuah the hero demonstrates his deep knowledge of kris-lore, for instance when recalled by the Sultan after the treason of Hang Jebat, he is requested to choose from the royal collection a suitably powerful kris with which to kill the traitor for his lord, see Kassim Ahmad (Citation1997: 346–53). Matheson Hooker (Citation1999: 9) too, has noted that many characteristics of Awang are modelled on those of Hang Tuah: his knowledge about the kris, his dedication to his lord, his having formed a band of close companions, his skill in many languages and the martial arts, and his studies in Islam. 7See Henry Chambert-Loir (Citation1994: 41–61), Muhammad Haji Salleh (Citation2000: 27–47), and G.L. Koster (Citation2007b: 207–62). 8 Kelihatan mata De Gama melingas seperti rupa orang gila dengan rambut dan janggutnya panjang (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 90). I have left the imperfections of the English of the translation in Harun Aminurrashid (1961) uncorrected. 9In the English version of the novel, Mariam has been rendered Miriam. 10 Alangkah terkejutnya Enrique tiba-tiba di balik pokok bunga mawar kelihatan terdiri seorang wanita memakai serba hitam. Enrique mulanya terperanjat, kerana pada sangkanya hantu datang mendapatkannya, tetapi dikuatkan hatinya merapati lembaga yang dilihatnya, dan semakin jelas kepadanya lembaga itu bukan lain dari Mariam gadis Peringgi yang cuba hendak menggodanya. 'Nona rupanya, saya sangka malaikat turun menikmati malam terang bulan di tengah-tengah taman indah […]', kata Enrique bergurau (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 124–5). 11For a summary of the story of Hikayat Cekel Wanengpati, as it is found in Cod. Or. 1709 in the collection of the Leiden University Library, see Rassers (Citation1922: 18–127). 12 Tun Gayah sendiri yang selama ini berupa gagah perwira memimpin pasukan yang bergelar Tun Fatimah yang tak pernah nampak lemahnya, pada malam itu bertukar corak sekali menjadi malu-malu;apalagi ditentang oleh Panglima Awang (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 232). 13The historical Vasco da Gama was the first Portuguese explorer to reach India and arrived in Kolkata in May 1498. Firmly convinced there was a Muslim conspiracy against his expedition during his voyage along the East African coast and in India he adopted a belligerent attitude towards his presumed enemies. Future Portuguese captains found it next to impossible to break out of the vicious circle of violence and recriminations his first voyage established. See Malyn Newitt (Citation2005: 58). 14 Kapitan Fernado ini sangat berlainan gerak langkah dan kelakuannya kalau dibandingkan dengan lain-lain pegawai Portugis yang datang menaklukkan Melaka. Ia taat dengan ugamanya serta kelakuannya lemah lembut dan pengasihan. Selama ia di kapal itu ia sangat membantah perbuatan orang-orang Portugis lain yang sangat ganas tak mengenal hati kemanusiaan, kalah juga ia dari menegah orang-orang Portugis yang ganas itu melakukan sewenang-wenang kepada tawanan yang dibawa berlayar itu. Hanya Panglima Awang sahaja tidak diganggu oleh orang-orang Portugis itu, sebab mengikut perintah Alfonso yang Panglima Awang itu adalah dalam jagaan Fernado sendiri (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 65). 15Matheson Hooker (Citation1999: 12–13) has pointed out that Fernado's character is described in terms of Malay values. Saved by Fernado, so she explains, Awang becomes morally indebted to him to repay his kindness (membalas budi). 16Interestingly, in Hikayat Hang Tuah the Portuguese intruders in the Malay world are criticised as people who lack manners (tidak berbudi) for not heeding the customs regulating trade and seafaring, see Koster (Citation2007b: 220–23). In Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal the hero is very much concerned with recalling, confirming and preserving the vital principles of custom (adat) and proper speech (tahu bahasa) against the pressure of invading western and other foreign ways of life, see Koster (Citation2007a: 36–37; 39; 61–64). 17 Kami yang datang ini ialah semata-mata untuk membuat perhubungan persahabatan. Ketua kami ini bernama Laksamana Fernado, telah menerima perintah daripada Raja Sepanyol untuk belayar menuju mencari negeri-negeri baharu dan bersahabat dan berniaga (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 166). 18About La Malinche and her ambiguous position as interpreter for both the Spanish conquistador and the Aztecs, see Todorov (Citation1982: 106–7; 120; 201–2; 219; 225). 19On a much smaller scale this collecting of information had of course already started on the arrival of the Europeans in Southeast Asia. One need only think of a Tomé Pires with his intensely commercial interest or indeed of Pigafetta who accompanied Magellan on his circumnavigation and collected linguistic and other information. See Pires Citation(1944) and Pigafetta Citation(1969). 20For a theoretical discussion of the coloniser's gaze, see Mary Louise Pratt (Citation1992: 15–37). 21 Dengan kehendak Fernado, Figafetta ditugaskan supaya menyiasat sejauh mana orang-orang Portugis telah sampai ketika itu. Panglima Awang dijadikan penolongnya. Figafetta yang cenderung dengan mengumpulkan berbagai bahasa itu telah mengumpulkan bahasa Melayu untuk pengetahuannya sendiri di dalam sebuah buku. Maka dengan bantuan beberapa ahli-ahli pelayaran bangsa Siam yang datang berniaga ke Pulau Cebu itu dapatlah berbagai cerita berkenaan negeri Melaka yang telah dikalahkan oleh Portugis. […] Semua cerita penyiasatan ini dikaji benar-benar oleh Fernado dan disiasatnya juga segala adat-istiadat negeri itu serta ugamanya, dan mulalah Fernado mencuba mengembangkan ugama Kristian kepada orang-orang yang kebanyakannya belum memeluk apa-apa ugama walau telah ada ugama Islam di situ (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 169–70). 22 Orang di darat ramai berdiri melihat perahu yang datang. […]. Orang-orang yang ramai itu kebanyakan bercawat, kanak-kanaknya tidak memakai pakaian, kulit mereka hitam manis tegap badannya, iras-iras mereka seperti orang melayu Melaka. Enrique turun ke darat seorang diri, dengan serta-merta ia dikerumun oleh orang-orang itu yang didengar oleh Enrique mereka berbahasa seperti bahasa melayu. Enrique cuba bertanya kepada mereka nama pokok yang banyak di tepi pantai itu, mereka menjawab pokok kelapa, dan kemudian Enrique bertanya kalau mereka mengerti perkataan-perkataan 'air', 'ikan', 'beras' dan lain-lain lagi. Semua perkataan-perkataan itu serupa memakai bahasa Melayu. Bukan main gembira hati Enrique […] (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 153–54). 23 Kapalnya berlabuh di suatu pantai yang ada beberapa kelamin nelayan. Mereka mempunyai bahasa sendiri yang ada iras-iras bahasa Melayu. Mereka mengerti juga berbahasa Melayu seperti orang-orang di Pulau Mactan dan Cebu. Maka dari orang-orang di tepi pantai itu, Panglima Awang mengetahui nama gunung yang tinggi itu ialah Gunung Kinabalu; dan orang yang bercakap-cakap dengannya itu orang Dusun. Panglima Awang sangat besar hatinya mengembara di sepanjang pelayaran itu, kerana didapatinya orang-orang dalam kawasan itu semuanya sebangsa dengan orang-orang Melaka dan berbahasa Melayu. Kata Panglima Awang dalam hatinya, 'Sungguh besar kawasan orang-orang yang sebangsa dan sebahasa dengan aku.' (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 196–97). 24 Enrique terperanjat mendengar cakap Fernado, baharu ia sedar merbahaya yang akan dihadapinya kalau ia balik ke Melaka. Ia terpaksa mengadap keganasan Portugis. Enrique termenung, fikirannya melayang jauh, hatinya tidak sedikit pun ingin hendak balik ke Spanyol, terbayang juga ia kepada Mariam yang di Portugis pernah merayu kepadanya supaya tinggal di negeri Barat sana. Tetapi ketika itu juga terbayanglah wajah Tun Gayah tunangnya yang telah ditinggalkan selama hampir sepuluh tahun itu entah apakah nasibnya. Dengan suara dukacita Enrique menjawab pertanyaan Fernado, 'Aku mengerti apa yang engkau terfikir di atas nasib aku, sebab itu biarlah soal itu kita putuskan kemudian bila telah sampai masanya nanti (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 161). 25See for example Harun Aminurrashid (1961: 43; 1967: 70). 26 Berjanjilah ia akan mengajar Panglima Awang ilmu-ilmu yang ada pada diirinya, asalkan benar-benar mahu ia mengikut segala pengajarannya (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 70). 27 Dengan cara pergaulannya yang sopan santun itu, kadangkali Mariam terlupa bahawa antara dirinya dengan Enrique adalah sedang dibatasi oleh berlainan bangsa dan ugama. Memang Mariam menyangka Enrique adalah berugama Kristian sebab itu diberinya kitab bible kepada Enrique (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 108). 28 Gerun juga hati Enrique melihat air yang membiru beku itu. Dalam hatinya berkata, 'Kekayaan Tuhan menjadikan alamnya dengan berbagai rupa dan pandangan.' (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 151). 29Interestingly, among the English reading materials translated into Malay by the Malay Translation Bureau (Pejabat Karang Mengarang) of SITC we find such samples of the boys' adventure tale as The man-eaters of Tsavo, King Solomon's mines and Treasure island, see Yahya Ismail (Citation1976: 40). 30'Engkau sebagai bangsa Timur yang telah aku pandang sebagai seorang yang tiada kurangnya dengan bangsa aku. Aku pandang tinggi kelayakan dan kebolehanmu' (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 176). 31'Aku tengok engkau sekarang lebih gagah daripada aku, dan lebih kuat menahan sabar daripada aku' (Harun Aminurrashid 1967: 148). 32In his first novel, Melor Kuala Lumpur [1930] Harun was apparently inspired by this Tanjung Malim experience. As Matheson Hooker tells us, Harun appears in it as the gifted student Sulaiman, nicknamed 'the Professor' who engages in discussions with his fellow students on the progress made by the Malays. Besides Dussek, another teacher who greatly influenced Harun was Abdul Hadi bin Haji Hassan, author of a history of the Malay world which celebrates the glorious past of the Malays during the Malacca sultanate. Abdul Hadi appears in Melor Kuala Lumpur as the forceful Malay schoolteacher who bangs his fist on the table to impress on his pupils the fact that the Malays are quite capable of ruling themselves because they were able to rule the vast empire of Majapahit in the time of the Malaccan sultanate (Matheson Hooker Citation1999: 6). The novel's first edition (1930) is in Jawi. For its second edition, which is in Rumi, see Harun Aminurrashid Citation(1962). 33For overviews and evaluations of the European discussion from the 19th century until the present about the ethnocentric, stereotypical, myth-based way in which the ethnic Other is portrayed in traditional and also often in modern Malay literature, see Murtagh (Citation2007: 1–22) and Braginsky (Citation2007: 335–63). 34See A. Samad Said (Citation1961; 1985). 35See Harun Aminurrashid (Citation1966).