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COMPARISON OF STATE-MANAGED AND FARMER-MANAGED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

2014; Wiley; Volume: 63; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1002/ird.1871

1531-0353

Muhammad Latif, Zia Ul Haq, Ghulam Nabi,

Agricultural Economics and Practices

Irrigation system management in Pakistan is undergoing institutional reforms to implement participatory irrigation management (PIM) with the involvement of farmers. This study was undertaken to examine the impacts of institutional reforms by comparing the irrigation service delivery of Hakra 3-R distributary operated by the provincial irrigation department, and Hakra 4-R distributary operated by the farmers' organization (FO). The present study is based on detailed analysis of 18 watercourses, 9 on each of the secondary canal (distributary). The investigations were focused on parameters such as delivery performance ratio (DPR), spatial coefficient of variation (CVS), temporal coefficient of variation (CVT), farmers' net income and land and water productivities. Results of the study revealed that the 4-R distributary has a relatively superior irrigation service delivery in comparison to the 3-R distributary. Average net income, land and water productivities were higher on the 4-R distributary than the 3-R distributary. Based on the results of this study, it is concluded that the overall performance of the FO-managed irrigation canal (4-R) was better than the state-managed canal (3-R), but the performance of the former was also below expectations. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. La gestion du système d'irrigation au Pakistan connait des réformes institutionnelles pour introduire la gestion participative de l'irrigation (PIM) avec la participation des agriculteurs. Cette étude a été entreprise pour examiner les impacts des réformes institutionnelles en comparant la prestation de services d'irrigation de la branche Hakra 3-R exploitée par le département de l'irrigation provincial et la branche Hakra 4-R exploitée par l'organisation des agriculteurs (FO). La présente étude est fondée sur une analyse détaillée de 18 canaux: neuf cours d'eau sur chacune des deux branches. Les enquêtes ont porté sur des paramètres tels que le taux de livraison, le rendement (RMR), le coefficient de variation spatiale (CVS), le coefficient de variation temporelle (CVT), le revenu net des agriculteurs, les productivités des terres et de l'eau. Les résultats de l'étude a révélé que la branche 4-R a une prestation de services d'irrigation relativement supérieure à celle de 3-R. Le revenu net moyen, des terres et de l'eau productivité ont été plus élevés pour la branche 4-R. Sur la base des résultats de cette étude, il est conclu que la gouvernance globale du canal d'irrigation géré FO (4-R) était meilleure que celle du canal géré par l'Etat, (3-R) mais la performance de ce dernier était également en deçà des attentes. Irrigation is inevitable for profitable crop production particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Pakistan has one of the largest contiguous canal irrigation systems in the world but unfortunately it is not functioning efficiently. This underperformance is normally attributed to mismanagement, malpractices and scarcity of irrigation water. Irrigation system management in Pakistan is undergoing institutional reforms to introduce participatory irrigation management (PIM) with the involvement of farmers. A pilot project of PIM was launched in the country to gain some experience on institutional reforms.The Hakra 4-R distributary is one of the distributaries operating under a farmers' organization (FO) since its management transfer in 1999, while the Hakra 3-R distributary is managed by the provincial irrigation department. In the study area, canal water is the primary source of irrigation water, followed by groundwater pumping. The canal water is delivered to the farmers under a weekly roster locally called the 'warabandi' if water is available in the main canal. Planned deliveries are constant throughout the growing season, regardless of changes in crop water requirements. The farmers can also pump groundwater from their tube wells as and when required depending on the quality of groundwater. The specific objectives of this study were to examine the impacts of institutional reforms by determining and comparing irrigation service delivery, income of the farmers and water productivity on the Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R irrigation canals which are managed by the irrigation department and FO respectively. Abernethy (2010) has reviewed the theory of governance of authoritarian (top-down) and participatory (bottom-up) types of irrigation systems. The former type of irrigation system was mostly developed by colonial regimes in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, mainly in Asia and Africa. An excessive financial burden on the states in many countries has led to deterioration of their performance and sustainability. To revive the performance of state-managed irrigation systems, many developing countries and donor agencies are attempting to transfer management from states to self-governance. This author has expressed his concern about management transfer of large irrigation systems: 'There is a risk that some irrigation systems may deteriorate to the point of collapse, in the absence of improved conditions of (self) governance.' (Abernethy, 2010). Molden and Gates (1990) carried out extensive field measurements to evaluate the performance of two irrigation systems (locally managed and state managed). Both systems were functioning below expected levels in terms of adequacy, equity, efficiency and dependability, both at the canal head as well as at the farm turnouts. Similarly, Vermillion (1997) reviewed 29 studies on post-transfer impacts of irrigation management transfer (IMT). The studies were carried out after different durations (a few to several years) of management transfer and in various countries (i.e. Bangladesh, China, Colombia, Egypt, India, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, the Philippines, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Sudan and USA). He concluded that management transfer was very effective in reducing the cost of irrigation for both government and the farmers, enhanced financial self-reliance of the irrigation schemes, expansion of irrigated areas and reduction in the amount of water delivered per unit area, and increased cropping intensity and crop yields. However, some frequently reported negative impacts of management transfers were increased cost to the farmers, failing financial reliability of lift schemes and deteriorating infrastructures. Vermillion and Restrepo (1998) reported that Colombia adopted the participatory management concept in 1990 and transferred management responsibility for several irrigation districts to water user associations. They concluded that management transfer performed a number of managerial changes aimed at improving management efficiency and accountability of the staff. The transfer also resulted in a significant shift in the burden of cost from the government to the farmers, which has generally been accepted by the latter. But IMT does not have a substantial impact on improving the operation and maintenance of irrigation systems, or on the agricultural and economic productivity of irrigated land or water. Latif and Pomee (2003) concluded that the concept of participatory irrigation management (PIM) was somewhat more effective, and better irrigation services were provided to the farmers in the Hakra 4-R distributary after a few years of management transfer. Under FO management, the irrigated area increased by 6% on average. Similarly, cost recovery also increased by 25 and 14% in summer (kharif) and winter (rabi) seasons respectively. However, the results of the study should be taken as the combined impact of the distributary lining and improvement programme coupled with FO management. The Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA, 2008) evaluated the performance of FOs and the Area Water Board (AWB) in the Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) Circle (East) Faisalabad. Results of this study revealed that 36% of the tails of FO-managed channels remained dry, 13% of channels were short of water and only 42% of the tails were operating at designed discharge during the rabi season 2007–2008. During the following crop season (i.e. kharif 2008) about 26% tails of the FO-managed channels remained dry, tails of 20% of channels were short of water while tails of 51% of channels were operating at the designed discharge. The majority of farmers were not satisfied with the availability of water at the tails. Overall performance of the FOs after 3 years of management transfer is shown in Figure 1. In another study, Haq (2010) reported the performance of FOs in the Lower Chenab Canal (East) Pilot Area Water Board (AWB) in Punjab, Pakistan. The internal and external performance evaluation of 84 FOs, conducted by the PIDA and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) consultants indicated that the performance of about 20% FOs was good, 60–65% satisfactory, while the performance of 15–20% of FOs ranged from unsatisfactory to poor. The performance of FOs was found to be good in dispute resolution, while the main issues for FOs were the decline in revenue collection, weaknesses in the maintenance of accounts and increasing inequity in water distribution in some cases. Azhar and Nabi (2011) assessed the impact of physical and management interventions implemented under the Punjab Irrigation Sector Reforms Programme. Results of this study showed that about 15% more water supplies were delivered during the kharif season 2006 as compared to the 2004 kharif season. Similarly, the water supply was augmented by 41% during the 2006–2007 rabi season as compared to the 2004–2005 rabi season. Delivery performance ratio analysis revealed that during the intervention period the overall supply position of canal systems in terms of equity was satisfactory, by and large. However, the spatial coefficient of variability analysis indicated that water distribution was not satisfactory among the distributaries. Performance of different FOs was reasonably good during the first year of their inception but declined with time in almost all cases. Although much has not yet been achieved, first-year performance was encouraging. If this tempo is continued even better results will be achieved through collective efforts. However, an effective accountability mechanism is equally important and inevitable if desired targets are to be achieved (PIDA, 2011). Based on the literature cited, it can be concluded that most of the farmer-managed irrigation systems (FMIS) working in different parts of the world as well as in Pakistan have mixed performance: some FMIS demonstrated significant improvements in system management while others did not perform up to the required expectations in different parts of the world. Moreover, experience is lacking in the management of large irrigation systems by FOs. The study area comprised Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries in Bahawalnagar District. Both the distributaries offtake from the Hakra Branch Canal at RD 89750/L in Harooabad Subdivision of Bahawalnagar District. The Hakra Branch Canal offtakes from the Eastern Sadiqia Canal, which has a length of 74 km and originates from the left bank of Sulemanki headworks constructed on Sutlej River, having GPS coordinates 30° 22′ 40″ N and 73° 51′ 59″ E and its elevation is 175 m + MSL (mean sea level). The present study is based on detailed analysis of 18 watercourse command areas. Nine watercourses were selected each on the Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries. Some features of the selected watercourses are given in Table 1. For more information; the reader is referred to Haq (2012). Each distributary was divided into three reaches, head, middle and tail, along their lengths and three watercourses were selected from each reach of both distributaries as shown in Figure 2. The input data were collected by field measurements, interviews and secondary data sources. The secondary data include design discharges of both distributaries and their outlets, the command area of the outlets and design parameters of the outlets. The secondary data were collected from the Irrigation Department, Bahawalnagar and the FO office, Haroonabad. To achieve the specific objectives of the study, the investigations were focused on irrigation service delivery and productivity of irrigation water. Irrigation service delivery depends on equity and reliability, while productivity of irrigation water depends on the net income of the farmers. The productivity of irrigation water is related to the output from the system in response to the input added to the system (Gorantiwar and Smout, 2004). The data required for irrigation water productivity were collected from 162 farms. Nine farms were selected at each of the 18 selected watercourses having 3 each at head, middle and tail, just like the outlets located at the distributaries shown in Figure 2. Discharge of the outlets was measured at the head of the watercourses. The selected farms were located at different locations along the watercourses, so water losses estimated by Arshad et al. (2009) were used to estimate the volume of canal water supplied at the farm inlets. Apart from canal water supply, groundwater was also used to fulfil crop water requirements in the study area. Groundwater pumping data were collected from the farmers during the field survey. Estimated volume of water supplied at the farm inlets and the information provided by the farmers (through an interview questionnaire) were used to calculate irrigation water productivity by using a Microsoft Excel sheet. A comprehensive questionnaire proforma was designed to collect data of all inputs and outputs from the selected farmers. An extensive programme for interviewing the farmers was conducted in the post-harvest season of the wheat crop from July to September 2011. Volume of water applied consists of canal water as well as groundwater. Discharge at the head of both canals was measured on three consecutive days. Table 2 shows the design discharge and average measured discharge of both secondary canals at their heads. The table reveals that Hakra3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries have 9 and 19% more actual discharge than their authorized design discharge respectively. Equity does not mean equal distribution of water among the water users but a proportionate share of irrigation water for all the stakeholders, regardless of their location along the irrigation channels. Bos et al. (1994) used discharge in the form of delivery performance ratio for equity measures. The equity is presented by two parameters: delivery performance ratio (DPR) in spatial manner and spatial coefficient of variation (CVS). The ideal value of the DPR should be 1. Any deviation from one value of the DPR shows unfair distribution of irrigation water among the stakeholders. The absolute value of spatial coefficient of variation (CVS) should be zero for a perfectly managed system. The DPRs of all the selected watercourses at Hakra 3-R distributary ranged from 0.7 to 2.2 and at Hakra 4-R distributary it ranged from 0.8 to 1.7, as shown in Figure 3. The DPRs follow a decreasing trend along the 4-R distributary, but an unusual and asymmetrical trend along the 3-R distributary. The DPR values at the middle of the 3-R distributary are higher and decrease towards the head and tail reaches. Values of the spatial coefficient of variation (CVS) were 49, 53 and 50% for the 3-R distributary and 24, 21 and 25% for the 4-R distributary on the first, second and third days of discharge measurements, respectively, as shown in Figure 4. The higher values of CVS reveal more variation in water distribution along the 3-R distributary in comparison to the 4-R distributary. The variation is more than double on 3-R than 4-R. These results show that the Hakra 4-R distributary has better irrigation service delivery, while comparatively worse condition of water availability exists on the Hakra 3-R distributary. Reliability of irrigation deliveries is another important objective to be achieved by system managers for the proper and smooth functioning of an irrigation distribution network. It is generally measured in terms of the temporal coefficient of variation, and the absolute value of this parameter should be zero for a perfectly managed system. The temporal coefficients of variation (CVT %) of all the selected watercourses on the Hakra 3-R distributary ranged from 3.2 to 13 and on the Hakra 4-R distributary they ranged from 0.3 to 7, as shown in Figure 5. The CVT has a comparatively smooth increasing trend along the 4-R distributary but an asymmetrical trend along the 3-R distributary. The water supply becomes more unreliable towards the tail reaches of both secondary canals and it is relatively more unreliable for the state-managed secondary canal (3-R) as compared to the FO-managed secondary canal (4-R). One objective of the irrigation reforms was to improve irrigation water supply at the tails of secondary canals. But the results of the present study clearly demonstrate that the above objective has not yet been fully achieved. Productivity is related to output from the system in response to the input added to the system (Gorantiwar and Smout, 2004). Lenton (1986) listed the various indicators of productivity as total production, total net benefits and total area irrigated. Thus productivity of irrigation water can be described in different ways as net income, land productivity and water productivity. Net income, land and water productivities for different watercourses on both secondary canals are given in Table 3. It is assumed that average net income of the tertiary canals represents the income of the farmers along the secondary canals which are plotted in Figure 6. It is apparent from the figure that income shows a decreasing trend from head to tail along the 4-R distributary though not a very smooth one, while the 3-R distributary has an increasing trend from head to middle and then abruptly falls into negative earnings (i.e. loss) towards the tail end of the distributary. This is mainly due to the decreasing amount of canal water supplies and corresponding increasing use of groundwater in the lower reaches of both distributaries. The share of groundwater use was 53 and 44% in the 3-R and 4-R distributaries respectively. Average net income at the head, middle and tail of the 4-R distributary varies from Rs. 31 000, 18 000 and 6000 ha−1 respectively, whereas the same values are Rs. 18 000, 23 000 and −2000 respectively for the 3-R distributary. The negative income at the tail of the 3-R distributary may be due to higher variation in canal water supply on this distributary (Figure 4). Average net income on the Hakra 3-R distributary was Rs. 13 000 and for Hakra 4-R distributary it was Rs. 19 000 ha−1 (Table 3). Thus net income on the Hakra 4-R distributary was 32% higher. Average net income at the head, middle and tail of both secondary canals is plotted in Figure 7. Higher income at the head of 4-R and the middle of 3-R distributaries is clearly demonstrated in the figure, but the situation is worst at the tails of both distributaries. Income at the tail of the 4-R distributary is only 21% of its head value, whereas there is negative income (i.e. loss) at the tail of the 3-R distributary. Land productivity of all the selected watercourses on the Hakra 3-R distributary ranged from 0.67 to 3.80 t ha−1, and on the Hakra 4-R distributary it varied from 1.13 to 4.39 t ha−1. Land productivity follows a decreasing trend from head to tail along the 4-R distributary though not very smoothly, while the 3-R distributary has a straight line from the head to middle and then it abruptly falls towards the tail end of the distributary as shown in Figure 8. Land productivity decreased abruptly at the tail reaches of both distributaries; it decreased 78 and 65% with respect to their head reaches on the Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries, respectively. Average land productivity of the Hakra 3-R distributary was 2.69 t ha−1 and for the Hakra 4-R distributary it was 2.95 t ha−1 (Table 3). Thus land productivity of the Hakra 4-R distributary was 8.8% higher. Water productivity of all the selected farms on the Hakra 3-R distributary ranged from 0.91 to 2.80 kg m−3 and on the Hakra 4-R distributary it varied from 1.18 to 2.82 kg m−3. Water productivity has a decreasing trend along the 4-R distributary while on the 3-R distributary it increases in the middle and then suddenly decreases towards the tail as shown in Figure 9. Average water productivity of the Hakra 3-R distributary was 1.89 kg m−3 and for the Hakra 4-R distributary it was 2.08 kg m−3 as given in Table 3. Thus water productivity of the Hakra 4-R distributary was 9% higher than the state-managed distributary (3-R). Data of water productivity in different countries for the wheat crop are given in Table 4 and it is also plotted in Figure 10 for more elaboration. It is apparent from these data that China has the highest average water productivity (2.23 kg m−3), while in Pakistan it varies from 1 to 2.82 kg m−3. Average water productivity of 1.97 kg m−3 was found in the present study. It is clear from these data that there is no definite pattern; instead water productivity varies within and across countries and across time (see for example Figure 10 for China). Water productivity may vary due to difference in irrigation delivery service, climate, inputs used and soil types because it mainly depends on availability of irrigation water and its reliability, soil types, seed quality, fertilizer applied, herbicides applied and management practices. Kruse et al. (1991) Deju and Jingwen (1993) Sezen and Yazar (1996) Waheed et al. (1999) Jin et al. (1999) Zhang et al. (2003) Hussain et al. (2003) World Bank (2005) Jehangir et al. (2007) The tertiary canals known as watercourses in Pakistan are the terminal parts of the irrigation system where control of irrigation water is transferred to water users from the irrigation department. Eighteen tertiary canals (watercourses), three each at the head, middle and tail of both secondary canals (Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries), were selected. Nine farms were selected at each of the 18 selected tertiary canals (watercourses), three each at the head, middle and tail of each tertiary canal, just like the outlets located at the distributaries shown in Figure 2. Land productivity decreases towards the tail sections with respect to their head sections in all the tertiary canals on both distributaries: it decreased 38 and 30% of the values at their head sections on the Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries respectively. Thus decrease is relatively greater for the 3-R distributary compared to 4-R distributary, also shown in Figure 11. The net income also decreases towards the tails of all the watercourses with respect to their head sections on both the distributaries, and there is a relatively sharp decrease on the state-managed secondary canal (3-R) compared to the FO-managed secondary canal (4-R), as shown in Figures 12 and 13 respectively. Average net income at the head, middle and tail of the tertiary canals was Rs. 21 200, 11 400 and 6720 ha−1 respectively on the Hakra 3-R distributary, while it was Rs. 23 900, 14 500 and 9020 ha−1 respectively at the head, middle and tail of the tertiary canals on the Hakra 4-R distributary. The net income decreased abruptly at the tail sections of all the tertiary canals on both distributaries: it decreased 68 and 62% with respect to their head sections on the Hakra 3-R and Hakra 4-R distributaries respectively. In other words, the net income at the tail sections of the tertiary canals on the 3-R and 4-R distributaries is only 32 and 38% respectively of their head sections (i.e. approximately one-third). These results are in conformity with the one reported by Latif (2007). This study was conducted to identify the impacts of institutional reforms by comparing the irrigation service delivery of state-operated and FO-operated secondary canals. The results of the study showed that irrigation service delivery at the FO-managed distributary (4-R) was somewhat superior to the 3-R distributary managed by the Irrigation Department. Net income, land and water productivities were slightly higher at the FO-managed canal (4-R distributary) than the state-managed canal (3-R distributary). While the net income, land and water productivities on all the selected secondary and tertiary canals showed a distinctive decreasing trend along the canals towards their lower (tail) ends. The overall finding of this study is that the institutional reforms have partially improved irrigation service delivery but the conditions are not much different than those existing at the canal managed by the Irrigation Department even after more than a decade of irrigation management transfer.