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Chinese Shōgun: Gao Huan (496–547)

2014; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 76; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1111/hisn.12032

1540-6563

Charles Holcombe,

Hong Kong and Taiwan Politics

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes1. The familiar standard imperial title tennō was, however, “in disuse between 1200 and 1840” (Herman Ooms, Imperial Politics and Symbolics in Ancient Japan: The Tenmu Dynasty, 650–800, Honolulu, HI: Taylor & Francis, 2009, 269n5).2. The exception was the Muromachi (or Ashikaga) period from 1338 to 1573, during which both emperor and shōgun were resident in Kyōto, in western Honshū. Otherwise, from 1192 to 1333 the shogunate was headquartered at Kamakura, and from 1603 to 1868 it was at Edo (modern Tōkyō), both located in the east of the island.3. Peter Duus, Feudalism in Japan, second ed., New York: Taylor & Francis, 1969, 12–13. For similarities between Japan and Europe, see Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, vol. 2: Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands, Cambridge: Taylor & Francis, 2009, 49–114, 371–493.4. Andrew Eisenberg has also compared Gao Huan's regime to a bakufu, or “Tent Government,” an alternate term for the shogunate; see A. Eisenberg, Kingship in Early Medieval China, Leiden: Taylor & Francis, 2008, 96.5. According to Tong dian (通典 [Comprehensive Canons]), comp. Du You (杜佑), 801 CE, Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1984, vol. 28, 163a.6. Song shu (宋書 [Dynastic History of the {Liu‐}Song]), comp. Shen Yue (沈約), 502, Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1974, vol. 97, 2394–2396. Suzuki Yasutami (鈴木靖民), “Higashi Ajia shominzoku no kokka keisei to Yamato ōken,” ( [“The Formation of the Various National States in East Asia, and Yamato Royal Authority”]) in Rekishigaku Kenkyūkai and Nihonshi Kenkyūkai, eds, Kōza: Nihon rekishi, 1; genshi‐kodai, 1 (), Tōkyō: Taylor & Francis, 1984, 193–232: 203–5; Wang Zhenping, Ambassadors from the Islands of Immortals: China‐Japan Relations in the Han‐Tang Period, Honolulu, HI: Taylor & Francis, 2005, 229–230.7. Jeffrey P. Mass, “Yoritomo and Feudalism,” in Jeffrey P. Mass, Antiquity and Anachronism in Japanese History, Stanford, CA: Taylor & Francis, 1992, 70–90: 74, 77.8. David A. Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900, London: Taylor & Francis, 2002, 41–42, 59–60. Xu Meili (徐美莉), “Lun Gao Huan ji qi shidai” (论高欢及其时代 [“On Gao Huan and his Era”]), in Yin Xian (殷宪), ed., Beichao yanjiu (北朝研究), vol. 2, Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 2001, 107–124: 112–13. The term samurai came into vogue only relatively late: See Takeuchi Rizō, “The Rise of the Warriors,” in Donald H. Shively and William H. Mccullough, eds, The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2, Heian Japan, Cambridge: Taylor & Francis, 1999, 644–709: 644–5.9. Rafe de Crespigny, Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao, 155–220 AD, Leiden: Taylor & Francis, 2010. On the Han abdication, see Howard L. Goodman, Ts'ao P'i Transcendent: The Political Culture of Dynasty‐Founding in China at the End of the Han, Seattle, WA: Taylor & Francis, 1998.10. Charles Holcombe, “The Xianbei in Chinese History,” Early Medieval China 19, 2013, 1–38.11. See, for example, Zhang Xuefeng (张学锋) and Fu Jiang (傅江), Dong Jin wenhua (东晋文化 [Eastern Jin Culture]), Nanjing: Taylor & Francis, 2005, 72–73.12. Cao Wenzhu (曹文柱), Hu Han fenzhi: Nanbeichao juan (胡漢分治:南北朝卷 [Separate Rule of the Hu and Han: The Northern and Southern Dynasties Volume]), Hong Kong: Taylor & Francis, 1992, 214; Wang Yichen (王怡辰), Dong Wei, Bei Qi de tongzhi jituan (東魏北齊的統治集團 [The Ruling Bloc of the Eastern Wei and Northern Qi]), Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 2006, 208.13. Tao Xiandu (陶-都), “Gao Huan fuzi bafu shulun” (高欢父子霸府述论 [“An Account of the Hegemonal Palace of Gao Huan, Father and Sons”]), Qingdao daxue shifan xueyuan xuebao (青岛大学师范学院学报) 1, 2006, 51–57: 51.14. Eisenberg, Kingship, 118n76.15. Mao Hanguang (毛漢光), “Bei Wei, Dong Wei, Bei Qi zhi hexin jituan yu hexin qu” (北魏東魏北齊之核心集團與核心區 [“The Core Bloc and Core Area of the Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, and Northern Qi']), in Mao Hanguang (毛漢光), Zhonguo zhonggu zhengzhi shi lun (中國中古政治史論), 1986; Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 1990, 29–98: 92.16. See Nicola Di cosmo, Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History, Cambridge: Taylor & Francis, 2002, 134–138, 141, 143.17. See Christopher I. Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton, NJ: Taylor & Francis, 2009, 359.18. Takeuchi Rizō, “Rise of the Warriors,” 670.19. The following summary of Gao family history is, except where otherwise noted, distilled from the basic annals section of the Bei Qi shu (北齊書 [Dynastic History of the Northern Qi]), comp. Li Baiyao (李百藥) (565–648), Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1972, from vol. 1, 1. to vol. 8, 114; and the Bei shi (北史 [History of the Northern Dynasties]), comp Li Yanshou (李延壽; ca. 629), Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1974, from vol. 6, 209 to vol. 8, 302.20. On Lady Lou, see Jennifer Holmgren, “Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Century China: A Study of the Kao Family of Northern Ch'i, c. 520–550,” Journal of Asian History 1, 1982, 1–50: 12–13, 40–1.21. Bei Qi shu, 23.329–30. Wei shu (魏書 [Dynastic History of the {Northern} Wei]), comp. by Wei Shou (魏收), 554; Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1974, vol. 18, 429–430. Gao Min (高敏), Wei, Jin, Nanbeichao bingzhi yanjiu (魏晋南北朝兵制研究 [Studies of the Military Systems of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties]), Zhengzhou: Taylor & Francis, 1998, 308–309, 311.22. On Erzhu Rong, see Su Xiaohua (苏小华), “Shilun Erzhu shi jituan de xingwang” (试论尔朱氏集团的兴亡 (“An Examination of the Rise and Fall of the Erzhu Family Clique”), Jinyang xuekan (晋阳学刊), vol. 3, 2005, 67–70.23. Li Wansheng (李万生) distrusts this story as having a fictional flavor. See Hou Jing zhi luan yu Beichao zhengju (侯景之乱与北朝政局 [Hou Jing's Rebellion and the Political Situation of the Northern Dynasties]), Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2003, 54.24. Wei shu, vol. 10, 255–256, vol. 13, 340, vol. 74, 1648.25. My narrative follows the Bei Qi shu and Bei shi basic annals, but another source claims instead that Gao Huan urged Erzhu Rong to usurp the throne, and that Erzhu was dissuaded by someone else: See Zhou shu (周書 [Dynastic History of the Northern Zhou]), comp. Linghu Defen (令狐德棻), 583–666, Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1971, vol. 14, 221–222.26. Bei Qi shu, vol. 21, 294.27. Tao Xiandu, “Gao Huan fuzi,” 51; Wang Yichen, Dong Wei, Bei Qi, 411–412; Wei shu, vol. 11, 290, vol. 80, 1774.28. Eisenberg, Kingship, 133.29. According to traditional Chinese reckoning, people were considered one year old (one sui 歲) on the day of their birth (instead of after their first birthday), and an additional year was added after each New Year.30. Wei shu, vol. 12, 297.31. Bei Qi shu, vol. 2, 18.32. Lü Chunsheng (呂春盛), Bei Qi zhengzhi shi yanjiu: Bei Qi shuaiwang yuanyin zhi kaocha (北齊政治史研究:北齊-亡原因之考察 [Studies in Northern Qi Political History: An Examination of the Reasons for the Decline and Fall of the Northern Qi], Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 1987, 149–151.33. On the Nine Distinctions, see de Crespigny, Imperial Warlord, 541.34. Sanping Chen, Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages, Philadelphia: U. of Pennsylvania P., 2012, 151; Zizhi tongjian, jinzhu (資治通鑑-註 [A New Commentary to the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance]), comp. Sima Guang (司馬光), 1084; Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 1966, vol. 160, 38.35. Sui shu (隋書 [Dynastic History of the Sui]), comp. Wei Zheng (魏徵; 636), Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1973, vol. 32, 947; Wei shu, vol. 12, 308. See Sun Jimin (孙继民), “Ye xia ‘subo’ de shangye wenhua xingzhi” (邺下”俗薄”的商业文化性质 [“The ‘Vulgar’ Commercial Cultural Characteristics of Ye”]), Zhongguo jingji shi yanjiu (中国经济史研究) 2, 2004, 94–97: 96.36. Li Wansheng, Hou Jing zhi luan, introduction 1–2 and main text 89, 158–159; Lü Chunsheng, Bei Qi zhengzhi shi yanjiu, 96. On Hou Jing, see Scott Pearce, “Who, and What, was Hou Jing?,” Early Medieval China 6, 2000, 49–73.37. Bei shi, vol. 14, 518. Miao Yue (繆鉞), “Beichao zhi Xianbeiyu” (北朝之鮮卑語 [“The Xianbei Language of the Northern Dynasties”]), in Miao Yue, Du shi cungao (讀史存稿), Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1963, 53–77: 64.38. Wei shu, vol. 12, 313.39. Jeffrey P. Mass, “The Kamakura bakufu,” in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3: Medieval Japan, ed. Kozo Yamamura, Cambridge: Taylor & Francis, 1990, 46–88: 66–73.40. Lü Simian (呂思勉), Liang Jin, Nanbeichao shi (兩晉南北朝史 [A History of the Two Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties], 1948), Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1983, 701.41. He Dezhang (何德章), “Gao Cheng zhi si yishuo” (高澄之死臆说 [“An Hypothesis about Gao Cheng's Death”]), in He Dezhang, Wei, Jin, Nanbeichao shi cong gao (魏晋南北朝史丛稿, 1998); Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 2010, 355–368: 357–9; Li Wansheng, Hou Jing zhi luan, 92.42. See Eisenberg, Kingship, 118n76.43. Bei Qi shu, vol. 9, 124, vol. 30, 408; Wei shu, vol. 12, 313–314.44. Jennifer Holmgren, “Seeds of Madness: A Portrait of Kao Yang, First Emperor of the Northern Ch'i, A.D. 530–60,” Papers on Far Eastern History 24, 1981, 83–134: 123–4.45. Zizhi tongjian, jinzhu, vol. 167, 342.46. Bei Qi shu, vol. 9, 125.47. Sui shu, vol. 24, 676; Zizhi tongjian, jinzhu, vol. 163, 153.48. Bei Qi shu, vol. 5, 73.49. Lü Chunsheng, Bei Qi zhengzhi shi yanjiu, 211. Wang Yichen, Dong Wei, Bei Qi, 278.50. Bei Qi shu, vol. 4, 54.51. Lou Zhaojun's biography is in Bei Qi shu, vol. 9, 123–124.52. Wang Yichen, Dong Wei Bei Qi, 237, 303, 311, 317.53. Bei Qi shu, vol. 11, 149. See Wang Yichen, Dong Wei, Bei Qi, 401, 404.54. Lü Chunsheng, Bei Qi zhengzhi shi yanjiu, 103–106.55. Zizhi tongjian, jinzhu, 169.427.56. Eisenberg, Kingship, 95. For the nickname, see Zhang Hequan (張鶴泉), Wei, Jin, Nanbeichao shi: yige fenlie yu ronghe de shidai (魏晉南北朝史:一個分裂-融合的時代 [The History of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties: A Divided and Mixed Age]), Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 2010, 319.57. Bei Qi shu, vol. 8, 110.58. Zhou shu, vol. 8, 133. See Huang Yongnian (黄永年), Liu zhi jiu shiji Zhongguo zhengzhi shi (六至-世纪中国政治史 [A Political History of China from the Sixth to the Ninth Centuries]), Shanghai: Taylor & Francis, 2004, 55.59. Liu Xueyao (劉學銚), Wu Hu shi lun (五胡史論 [Essays on the History of the Five Hu]), Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 2001, 319; Sun Tongxun (孫同勛), Tuoba shi de Han‐hua ji qita: Bei Wei shi lunwenji (拓拔氏的漢化及其他: 北魏史論文集 [The Sinicization of the Tuoba Clan, and Other [Matters]: Collected Essays on Northern Wei History]), Banqiao: Taylor & Francis, 2005, 126–127; Wang Yichen, Dong Wei, Bei Qi, 209.60. Bei Qi shu, vol. 21, 295.61. Bei Qi shu, vol. 1, 1.62. Zizhi tongjian, jinzhu, vol. 155, 627. See Kang Le (康樂) Cong xijiao dao nanjiao: guojia jidian yu Bei Wei zhengzhi (從西郊到南郊:國家祭典與北魏政治 [From Western Altars to Southern Altars: State Sacrifices and Northern Wei Politics]), Xinzhuang: Taylor & Francis, 1995, 47n18.63. Bei Qi shu, vol. 2, 23–24. For the Turkic identification, see Edwin G. Pulleyblank, “The ‘High Carts’: A Turkish‐Speaking People before the Türks,” in Edwin G. Pulleyblank, Central Asia and Non‐Chinese Peoples of Ancient China, 1990; Aldershot, Hampshire: Taylor & Francis, 2002, 21–26.64. Feng Chengjun (馮承鈞), “Tangdai Hua‐hua Fan, Hu, kao” (唐代華化蕃-考 [A Study of the Sinicization of Foreigners during the Tang Dynasty]), in Sui, Tang shidai Xiyu ren Hua‐hua kao (隋唐時代西域人華化考), ed. He Jianmin (何健民), 1939; Taibei: Taylor & Francis, 1979, 127–171: 169–71. Holmgren, “Family, Marriage and Political Power,” 2–12. Miao Yue (繆鉞), “Dong Wei Bei Qi zhengzhi shang Hanren yu Xianbei zhi chongtu” (东魏北齐政治上汉人与鲜卑之冲突 [The Conflict between Han People and Xianbei in Eastern Wei and Northern Qi Politics]), in Miao Yue, Du shi cungao (讀史存稿), 1949; Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1963, 78–94: 78–82. Yoshikawa Tadao (吉川忠夫), Kōkei no ran shimatsuki: Nanchō kizoku shakai no meiun ( [An Account of the Circumstances of Hou Jing's Rebellion: The Fate of Southern Dynasty Aristocratic Society]), Tōkyō: Taylor & Francis, 1974, 11–12.65. Zhou Yiliang (周一良), “Beichao de minzu wenti yu minzu zhengce” (北朝的民族問題與民族政策 [“Ethnic Problems and Ethnic Policies of the Northern Dynasties”]), in Zhou Yiliang, Wei, Jin, Nanbeichao shi lunji (魏晉南北朝史論集), 1950; Beijing: Taylor & Francis, 1963, 117–176: 125.66. Mass, “Kamakura bakufu,” 59–64; Pierre François Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down: Medieval Japanese Society, trans. by Käthe Roth, New York: Taylor & Francis, 2001, 54–56.67. A classic study is Hori Toshikazu (堀敏一), Kindensei no kenkū: Chūgoku kodai kokka no tochi seisaku to tochi shoyūsei ( [Studies of the Equitable Fields System: Land Policy and Land Ownership Systems of the Ancient Chinese State]), Tōkyō: Taylor & Francis, 1975.68. Gao Min (高敏), ed., Wei, Jin, Nanbeichao jingji shi (魏晋南北朝经济史 [An Economic History of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties]), Shanghai: Taylor & Francis, 1996, 393–414; Han Guopan (韩国磐), Beichao, Sui, Tang de juntian zhidu (北朝隋唐的均田制度 [The Equitable Fields System of the Northern Dynasties, Sui, and Tang]), Shanghai: Taylor & Francis, 1984, 111–120.69. Kawachi Jūzō (河地重造), “Chūgoku chūsei to wa nani ka: Yōroppa chūsei aruiwa Chūgoku kinsei to no kantanna hikaku” ( [“What was the Chinese Middle Ages? A Brief Comparison with either Medieval Europe or the China of Recent Times”]), in Chūgoku chūseishi kenkyū: Rikuchō, Zui, Tō no shakai to bunka (), ed. Chūgoku chūseishi kenkyūkai, Tōkyō: Taylor & Francis, 1970, 474–494: 482–3.70. The Minamoto, Ashikaga, and Tokugawa shoguns all claimed descent from Emperor Seiwa. See E. Papinot, Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan, Rutland, VT: Taylor & Francis, 1972 [1910], 373, 376. For the tenuous quality of Tokugawa claims to Minamoto (and thereby imperial) descent, however, see Conrad Totman, Tokugawa Ieyasu: Shogun, South San Francisco, CA: Taylor & Francis, 1983, 35, 86–7.71. Jeffrey P. Mass, Yoritomo and the Founding of the First Bakufu: The Origins of Dual Government in Japan, Stanford, CA: Taylor & Francis, 1999, 144.72. Michael J. Puett, To Become a God: Cosmology, Sacrifice, and Self‐Divinization in Early China, Cambridge, MA: Taylor & Francis, 2002, 258.73. Carl Leban (posthumously ed. by Albert E. Dien), “The Accession of Sima Yan, AD 265: Legitimation by Ritual Replication,” Early Medieval China 16, 2010, 1–50: 4.Additional informationNotes on contributorsCharles HolcombeCharles Holcombe is Professor of History at the University of Northern Iowa. He is author of In the Shadow of the Han: Literati Thought and Society at the Start of the Southern Dynasties (University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994), The Genesis of East Asia, 221 B.C.‐A.D. 907 (University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001), and A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty‐First Century (Cambridge University Press, 2011), as well as a number of shorter articles.