Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

COPING WITH PEACE AFTER A DEBACLE

2008; Routledge; Volume: 33; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03468750802038785

1502-7716

Petri Karonen,

European and International Law Studies

Abstract This article analyzes a situation when the war was actually over and society began to recover. The government faced a severe challenge after the war. These serious problems will be analyzed in the light of the Great Northern War (1700–1721). The plans of the central government to stabilize society will be analyzed, as will the different kinds of planning activities undertaken by the authorities. The critical nature of the situation led the government to concentrate solely on short‐term planning. The government had no proper strategies; there were just a couple of exceptions to this rule. Firstly, the problems in Finland were repeatedly concrete and tangible. This made them both easy to address and essential to redress. Conditions in Finland became an issue of the first order. Even here decisions were dictated to a great extent by short‐term goals. Another strategy was connected with notion of the ‘primacy of the economy’. The government tried to deal with the problems by granting tax exemptions and reliefs, or correspondingly by cut‐backs in areas other than those that had been devastated. The machinery of government was not able to create anything new after the war, but its supervision of existing activities was excellent. This was important with respect to the allocation and use of the meagre resources. Keywords: post–waraftermathcrisis of peaceplanningadministration Notes 1. This article is connected with the project “The Post‐War Crisis in Finnish Society: Government and Local Communities Dealing with the Aftermath of Wars 1600–2000” (homepage: http://www.cc.jyu.fi/rauha/) funded by the Academy of Finland. I also wish to thank the members of the “Early Modern Practice and Thought” project group at the University of Jyväskylä for their comments on earlier versions of this paper. 2. Riksarkivet Citation(RA) Inrikescivilexpeditionen (ICE) (1714) (1719–1809), Registratur (Reg.)13.2.1724: 140–144; CitationCederberg, Suomen historia; CitationCarlsson, Svensk historia; CitationAlanen, Suomen historia; CitationVilkuna, Viha. 3. One research approach is particularly interested in the direct and indirect effects of war on society. CitationHale, War and Society, esp. Chs 7 and 8; CitationKocka, Facing Total War. 4. CitationPope, “British Demobilization after the Second World War”, 66. 5. In Table 1 some factors and some of the terminology may not be particularly applicable to the Early Modern Age because it has been influenced by later crises. For more on this subject see CitationKaronen and Tarjamo, eds., Kun sota on ohi. 6. CitationJuvelius, Suomen puolustuskysymys, 217–18; CitationRosén, Den svenska utrikespolitikens historia; CitationÅmark, Sveriges statsfinanser, 80–2; CitationRoberts, The Age of Liberty, 16, 18, 24–5; CitationLindegren, “Om detta continuerar”, 17, 19, 22; Christer CitationKuvaja, Försörjning av en ockupationsarmé; CitationAminoff‐Winberg, På flykt i eget land. 7. RA Statskontorets skrivelser till Kungl. Maj:t Citation(SKM) 19 October 1720. 8. Even after the Great Northern War the relative share of military appropriations in the budget apportioned remained high: in the first year after the resumption of peace (1722) they amounted to two thirds of the budget, and in 1726 they still accounted for 58%. CitationRA Rådsprotokoll (RP) 21 February 1721: 880–94, 2 March 1721: 1052–67, 22 April 1721: 1797–1805; CitationMalmström, Sveriges politiska historia, 312–13; CitationHäggman, Studier i frihetstidens försvarspolitik, 78; CitationÅmark, Sveriges statsfinanser; CitationWensheim, Studier kring freden, 144–5. 9. On the other hand, the King's so‐called ‘general proposals’ (allmänna propositioner) sent to the same session of the Diet concentrate on general questions, in practice describing in partly Biblical language the making of peace with all enemies. In this connection, it is noteworthy that the territories lost in the Peace of Nystad are mentioned, although their extent is anything but exaggerated. Citation Sveriges ridderskaps och adels Riksdagsprotokoll , 340–3. 10. RA ICE, Reg. 29 January 1723: 60–115. 11. The information on individuals is based on a list of the leading civil servants compiled by CitationLewenhaupt (Svenska högre ämbetsmän) supplemented with information from Citation Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon . 12. RA ICE, Reg. 12 August 1720: 602–03, 10 April 1724: 494–494v. The works of CitationLagerroth (for example Frihetstidens maktägande ständer) still occupy a special position in research on the constitution and form of government during the Age of the Estates. CitationGustafsson (Political Interaction) provides a comprehensive description of the various activities of the Diet from the point of view of appeals and decision‐making. See also CitationAsker, “Militärstat eller militariserat samhälle?”, esp. p. 388, for an overview of the constitutional ‘line of continuity’ between the Age of Autocracy and the Age of the Estates. 13. RA RP 11 November 1720: 728–58, 29 August 1721: 756–756v., 4 July 1721: 32–3; The memorandum of the Secret Committee (6 July, 1720) printed in CitationWestrin (ed.), Svenska riksdagsakter, 144–5; CitationHäggman, Studier i frihetstidens försvarspolitik, 78–9; CitationÅmark, Sveriges statsfinanser, 81–96, 125. 14. On the depredations caused by the Russians in Sweden in 1719–1720, RA ICE, Diarier, ingående diarier (DID) 21 June 1721, number 52; ICE, Reg. 3 August 1719: 740–740v., 12 August 1720: 601v.–602. The travel accounts and correspondence of County Governors Stiernstedt and von Essen on conditions in their counties were read in the Privy Council in December 1721. ICE, DID 22 December 1721: 88, 89. For an overview of the channels of communication between the central government, the county administration and local communities, see CitationGustafsson, Political Interaction. 15. Cf. the announcement sent to the county governors about the peace treaties concluded with Great Britain, Brunswick‐Lüneburg, Prussia and Denmark and the associated ‘day of celebration and thanksgiving’ (låf‐ och tacksägelsedag). RA ICE, Reg. 27 October 1720: 794v.–795v.; CitationQuiding, Svenskt allmänt författningsregister; Citation Svenskt offentligt tryck –1833 . 16. RA ICE, DID 5.5.1722: 7. 17. RA RP 16 October 1721: 617–18, 18 December 1721: 1472, 1476–78. The continuing economic problems are also indicated by the fact that it was difficult to find funds to pay the travel expenses of the border commissioners appointed for the demarcation of the eastern frontier. The Privy Council was obliged to remind the Treasury ‘again’ (ånyå) to pay the expenses. RA RP 18 December 1721: 1472. On the problems concerning the demarcation of the eastern frontier, see CitationAlanen, Suomen historia; CitationCederberg, Suomen historia; CitationJuvelius, Suomen puolustuskysymys, 20–1; on frontiers as a defining factor of the sovereignty of the state, see CitationGustafsson, Political Interaction, 24; CitationClark, State and Status, 10–11; CitationMelkersson, Staten, ordningen och friheten, 15; CitationKatajala, Suurvallan rajalla. 18. RA ICE, Reg. 29 January 1723: 60–115, 13 August 1723: 523v.–524v., 18 August 1724: 992–4; CitationCederberg, Suomen historia, 34–42. 19. On the significance of war for the development of society in Sweden and the ‘all‐embracing’ grip of the army, see CitationKaronen, Pohjoinen suurvalta. In Sweden, the relationship between local communities and the central government has been studied both from the perspective of the military state (characterized by coercion and total concentration on the armed forces) and that of ‘positive’ interaction (emphasizing the significance of negotiation), although the two approaches are naturally not mutually exclusive: in the Swedish‐Finnish society there were elements of both. For the military state perspective, see CitationLindegren, “The Swedish “Military State”; CitationNilsson, De stora krigens tid; CitationKlingnéus, Bönder blir vapensmeder. CitationEva Österberg (e.g. “Bönder och centralmakt,” 74) emphasizes interaction. An important summary article is CitationGustafsson, “Vad var staten?” See also Hallenberg, Holm and Johansson, “Organization, Legitimation, Participation”. 20. In June 1721 the Privy Council decided mainly for reasons of economy to propose the total disbandment of two regiments and the partial disbandment of a third, although it was known that the Russian Navy was lying off the town of Gävle that is about 150 kilometres from the capital. RA RP 8 June 1721: 260–260v. 21. The total strength of the forces on the Finnish side of the realm in 1721 was less than 2,000 men, not all of whom were able to fight. RA RP 21 November 1721: 1120; CitationHäggman, Studier i frihetstidens försvarspolitik; CitationJuvelius, Suomen puolustuskysymys, 41–4, 51–3; CitationJuva, Suomen tie; On the so‐called ‘loaned men’ drafted from Sweden to Finland, see also CitationVuorimies, “Joitakin havaintoja”. 22. RA ICE, Reg. 26 July 1720: 565–565v., CitationCarlsson, Bonde – präst – ämbetsman, 36–7. 23. RA ICE, 13 January 1720: 22–5; CitationCederberg, Suomen historia, 16. On the situation after the Peace of Westphalia, see CitationJokipii, Suomen kreivi‐ ja vapaaherrakunnat; CitationNilsson, “Den karolinska militärstaten”. 24. CitationWirilander, Herrasväkeä, 105–06. 25. For example, in autumn 1721, the Privy Council devoted considerable time to debating the merits and ability to serve the realm of the high‐ranking officers who were being discharged. These officers, from majors to generals, were discussed one by one. RA RP 10 November 1721: 874–917, 13 November 1721: 927–28, 14 November 1721: 956–1011, 15 November 1721: 1013–31; CitationWirilander, Suomen upseeristo, 115, 211–14, 230–2; CitationCarlsson, Bonde – präst – ämbetsman, 36–7; CitationWirilander, Herrasväkeä, 131–2; CitationArtéus, Krigsmakt och samhälle. 26. RA ICE, Reg. e.g. 5 August 1724: 929–31, 6 April 1725: 273v.–275. 27. RA ICE, Reg. 28 May 1719: 397v.–8, 398v.–9, 17 June 1719: 550v.–1, 12 September 1719: 898–898v., 2 June 1720: 376–376v., 3 August 1720: 575–6v., 10 January 1721: 43–43v., 14 August 1721: 575–6; ICE, DID, 23 January 1721: 60. 28. RA ICE, DID, November 1720: 31, 89; December 1720: 83; January 1721, 18 January 1721: 47; ICE, Reg. 7 January 1720: 12–12v., 7 June 1721: 414–414v., 415–16, 10 July 1721: 482, 18 July 1721: 511v.–512. 29. On the situation in Finland during the Great Northern War, CitationLindeqvist, Isonvihan aika Suomessa; Antti CitationKujala, Miekka ei laske leikkiä; CitationVilkuna, Viha; Kustaa H. J. CitationVilkuna, Paholaisen sota. 30. RA ICE, Reg. 9 June 1721: 414–414v., 9 June 1721: 415–16, 10 July 1721: 482, 18 July 1721: 511v.–512. 31. RA ICE, Reg. 6 September 1721: 619; CitationCederberg, Suomen historia, 23–4. 32. RA ICE, DID, 1720–1722, 1723–1724 (The material contains basic information about both the applications made to the King by individual subjects and official correspondence with the authorities); ICE, Reg. 3 November 1721. 33. CitationAnnala, Suomen varhaiskapitalistinen teollisuus; CitationHeckscher, Sveriges ekonomiska historia; CitationBäck, “Ett komparativt perspektiv”; CitationRydeberg, Skatteköpen i Örebro län. 34. CitationOjala, Tehokasta liiketoimintaa Pohjanmaan pikkukaupungeissa; CitationOjala and Karonen, “Finnish Business”, 93–125, 316. 35. CitationAnnala, Suomen varhaiskapitalistinen teollisuus, 126–30, 148, 166–7; CitationHeckscher, Sveriges ekonomiska historia, 588–93; CitationMagnusson, Sveriges ekonomiska historia, 233–234, 250–251. 36. These scholars connect the phenomenon with the theory of rent seeking, the fundamentals of which it is not possible to deal with here. CitationEkelund and Tollison, “A Rent‐Seeking Theory”; CitationEkelund and Tollison, Politicized Economies. With regard to Sweden, the subject has been dealt with in CitationKaronen, Patruunat ja poliitikot, esp. Ch. III. 37. RA ICE, Reg., 19 July 1720: 540–1v.; 12 August 1720: 601v.–02; 3 March 1722: 216v.–18, 17 July 1724: 805–06; RP 9 January 1722: 112–13; 16 January 1722: 251, 3 March 1722: 834–5; CitationAhonen, Jälleenrakennuksen politiikka; CitationKaronen, Patruunat ja poliitikot. 38. RA ICE, Reg. 19 July 1720: 540–1v., 3 March 1722: 216v.–18, 221–4, 30 July 1723: 438–9, 18 October 1723: 948–948v., 949v.–50, 14 December 1723: 1100–1101v.; ICE, DID 11 May 1722: 43. 39. CitationÅmark, Sveriges statsfinanser, 154–5. 40. On the active role taken by the Diet, and above all the Estate of the Peasants, in appointing commissions, RA RP 14 July 1720: 225, 230, 18 July 1720: 260–1, 31 August 1720: 918–19, 7 September 1720: 1020–21, 11 October 1721: 537–8; CitationLennersand, Rättvisans och allmogens beskyddare, 234, 236, 269. 41. RA RP 24 October 1720: 430–1, 25 October 1720: 440–2, 11 October 1721: 537–8, 2 November 1721: 801. 42. RA ICE, DID 19 February 1722: 52, 20 April 1722: 75; ICE, Reg. 3 March 1722: 224–5, 24 April 1722: 409–410v.; RP 20 February 1722: 727–8; CitationLennersand, Rättvisans och allmogens beskyddare, Ch. 6; CitationAlho, Läntinen tutkijakunta. 43. RA ICE, Reg. 6 May 1720: 286, 288; CitationReuterswärd, Ett massmedium. 44. RA ICE, Reg. 25 August 1725: 922v.–923, 17 September 1725: 967– 967v. 45. RA ICE, Reg. 22 February 1726: 253–4, 254v.–256v.; CitationJuva, Suomen tie, 35. On the significance of the oath of allegiance, see CitationVillstrand, “Från konungens undersåtar”; CitationVilkuna, Paholaisen sota, 61, 63–4. 46. RA ICE, Reg. 30 August 1721: 609–609v., 22 January 1723: 54–5; RP 3 May 1721: 15v. 47. For example, in August 1721 an offertory applied for by the Cathedral Chapter of Härnösand was granted for repairing churches burned down by the Russians throughout the realm. RA ICE, DID 21 August 1721: 31; ICE, Reg. 30 August 1721: 609–609v., RP 6 July 1720: 103, 30 August 1721: 770–770v. 48. RA RP 20.3.1722: 1093, 20 March 1722: 1095–7; RA ICE, DID 5 March 1722: 17, 12 March 1722: 56. 49. Thus, for example, in 1725 the Parish of Ramsilla was not granted the right to collect offerings because the church had not been destroyed or otherwise damaged. The last applications for extensive nation‐wide collections for the restoration of churches destroyed during the war were made in 1726. RA ICE, Reg. 22 January 1723: 54–5, 22 October 1723: 956–7, 16 August 1725: 892–892v., 14 December 1725: 1245v.–1246v., 26 April 1726: 506–506v. 50. Already in January 1719 the Privy Counsellors recognized their ignorance of the negotiations between von Görtz and the Russians in Åland. RA RP 8 January 1719: 372–80; CitationLindeberg, “Det partipolitiska maktspelet”, 268–82. 51. One of the few statements with an eye to the future was made by the Privy Council in 1722, when it informed both the King and the State Treasury of the problems that were looming that year. The document predicted – quite correctly – that the number of released prisoners‐of‐war coming to Sweden out of captivity would increase considerably, as would the numbers of officers, non‐commissioned offers and rank‐and‐file soldiers discharged from the army. In addition to the expenses these would involve, there were a number of single disbursements such as remunerations for the brokerage of peace. However, a closer scrutiny of the document reveals that the idea had originally come from the State Commission (Statskommission). This commission would come to play an important role when henceforth the budget began to be planned in a more systematic way. RA ICE, Reg. 11 January 1722: 34–6, 30 January 1722: 115–115v.; CitationÅmark, Sveriges statsfinanser, 82–3. 52. The Finns themselves also insisted that their matters be dealt with promptly. Thus at the beginning of 1723 both the county governors in Finland and the Finnish members of the assembled Diet demanded that appeals made to it by Finns should be handled before any other matters. RA ICE, DID 16 February 1723: 62, 18 February 1723: 42. 53. RA ICE, Reg. 9 July 1722: 633v.–634v., 19 September 1723: 682–691v.; CitationRydeberg, Skatteköpen. 54. RA SKM 10 May 1722. 55. The punctiliousness with which the lists were compiled by the State Treasury was experienced in 1725 by 34 officers who sought to obtain further compensation for their losses. The Treasury was able to demonstrate that every single one of them had already received compensation, and therefore all their applications were rejected. RA SKM 26 August 1725. 56. RA ICE, Reg. 17 September 1719: 930v.–1. 57. Cf. Michael CitationRoberts (The Age of Liberty, 16), who regards Sweden in the Age of the Estates as one of the weakest states in Europe during this period. 58. CitationNilzén, Studier i 1730‐talets partiväsen; CitationCarlsson, Parti – partiväsen –partipolitiker.