“Contacts with the opposition”: American foreign relations, the Iranian student movement, and the global sixties
2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 4; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/17541328.2011.570032
ISSN1754-1336
Autores Tópico(s)Communism, Protests, Social Movements
ResumoAbstract Iranian students amassed one of the most impressive movements of the 1960s. Through diligent and efficient transnational organizing in the United States and Western Europe, oppositionist students wedded their rejection of the US-supported regime of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi with a broader, more inclusive internationalism that thrived in the late 1960s. This essay situates the Iranian student movement abroad -- both its challenges to the Washington-Tehran alliance and its internationalism -- within the context of US international history. Rather than establish and maintain systematic contacts with the opposition abroad to formulate a more dynamic and less myopic foreign policy, the Johnson and Nixon administrations interpreted Iranian student protest as an impediment to forging a stronger alliance with the Shah of Iran. Keywords: American foreign relationsIran foreign relationsUS-Iran relationsIranIranian student movementIranian Student Association in the United StatesConfederation of Iranian Studentsglobal sixtiesCold Warstudent exchangediasporatransnationalism Acknowledgments I would like to extend much appreciation to W. Taylor Fain, David Farber, Mary Ann Heiss, Richard Immerman, Lisa Pollard, Michael Seidman, Jeremy Varon, Thomas Zeiler, the anonymous readers for The Sixties, and the many individuals who have commented on various incarnations of this article at conferences for their insights. This article is part of a larger project on US-Iran relations, student exchange programs, and Iranian student migration from the early 1950s through the Iranian Revolution. Notes 1. Kramer, "Is the World Our Campus?," 776. Pioneering examinations of US student exchange programs and international student migration include Bevis and Lucas, International Students in American Colleges and Universities; Bu, Making the World Like Us; Li, U.S.-China Educational Exchange; Schaeper and Schaeper, Cowboys into Gentlemen; Walton, Internationalism, National Identities, and Study Abroad; and Ye, Seeking Modernity in China's Name. 2. "AHR Forum: The International 1968, Part I," and "AHR Forum: The International 1968, Part II." Other investigations of the global sixties include Chamberlin, "A World Restored"; Klimke, The Other Alliance; Klimke and Scharloth, 1968 in Europe; Marwick, The Sixties; Suri, Power and Protest; and Varon, Bringing the War Home. 3. Yetiv, The Absence of Grand Strategy, 11--13. Every historian of US-Iran relations is indebted to previous scholarship that addresses, to varying degrees, the Twin Pillars policy and US-Iran relations in the 1960s. The best overviews of US-Iran relations during the Cold War are Bill, The Eagle and the Lion; Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah; Pollack, The Persian Puzzle; and Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions. On US-Iran relations during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, refer to Goode, "Reforming Iran during the Kennedy Years"; and Johns, "The Johnson Administration, the Shah of Iran, and the Changing Pattern of U.S.-Iranian Relations, 1965--1967." Scholars have begun to pay considerable attention to the implementation of the Nixon Doctrine in the Middle East. See, for instance, Kimball, "The Nixon Doctrine;" Little, American Orientalism, 137--46; and Litwak, Détente and the Nixon Doctrine. On American and British strategies in the Persian Gulf refer to Fain, American Ascendance and British Retreat in the Persian Gulf Region; and Palmer, Guardians of the Gulf. 4. Some of the most recent literature on "unofficial ambassadors" includes Endy, Cold War Holidays; Falk, Upstaging the Cold War; Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy; Parker, Brother's Keeper; and Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World. 5. Mitra K. Shavarini, in a book on Iranian emigration, states, "One of the strongest opposition groups, with leftist influences, was known as the Confederation of Iranian Students," but says little else about the organization. Shavarini, Educating Immigrants, 164 n. 15. Fereydoun Hoveyda, writing on the Islamic revolution, mentions that "The Confederation organized demonstrations everywhere in Europe and America against the Shah and his ministers who travelled outside the country," but then focuses his attention elsewhere. Hoveyda, The Shah and the Ayatollah, 28. 6. The author has benefited immeasurably from the monographs, edited collections, and articles that examine Iranian intellectuals, the Left at home and abroad, guerrilla movements, and a plethora of social change movements in Iran during the twentieth century. First and foremost is Matin-asgari, Iranian Student Opposition to the Shah. For analyses of Iranian intellectuals, refer to Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals and the West; Gheissari, Iranian Intellectuals in the 20th Century; and Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization. On the Iranian Left, see Behrooz, Rebels with a Cause; Cronin, Reformers and Revolutionaries in Modern Iran; Ghamari-Tabrizi, "Between the Shah and the Imam"; and Moghadam, "Socialism or Anti-Imperialism?" On the guerrilla movements in Iran see Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin; and Vahabzadeh, A Guerrilla Odyssey. Also see Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism. 7. Victor Nemchenok also made this observation in his article, "In search of Stability Amid Chaos." On the 1953 coup see Byrne and Gasiorowski, Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran; and Kinzer, All the Shah's Men. For two of the finest works on the hostage crisis, refer to Bowden, Guests of the Ayatollah; and Farber, Taken Hostage. 8. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 97. 9. Bill, "The Politics of Student Alienation," 10; Milani, The Making of Iran's Islamic Revolution, 114. Bill drew his statistics from a 1964 study conducted by Iran's Ministry of Labor. Milani cites The National Census of Population, published in Tehran in 1966 and 1976. For university enrollment statistics in the United States, West Germany, France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China, refer to Suri, Power and Protest, 269, Table 1. 10. CIA Report, "Restless Youth," September 4, 1968, National Security File, Intelligence File, Box 3, Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, Texas (LBJL). Many thanks to Claudia Castiglioni for making available to me this document. Two years after "Restless Youth" landed on President Johnson's desk, the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency Richard Helms forwarded a document to National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger titled "Student Unrest Abroad." The two documents are remarkably similar, with the 1970 version repeating the 1968 document nearly verbatim, especially in the section on the Iranian student movement abroad. For the 1970 document, refer to Memorandum from Richard Helms to Henry Kissinger, "Student Unrest Abroad," September 2, 1970, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) 1969--1976, Vol. E-4: document #84, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d84 (accessed December 22, 2010). 11. Rachlin, Persian Girls. 12. Letter from Lucius Battle to John Rooney, February 20, 1964, General Records of the Department of State (GRDS), Central Foreign Policy Files (CFPF), 1964--1966, box 397, folder Iran, Record Group (RG) 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland (NA); Matin-asgari, Iranian Student Opposition to the Shah, 91; Bill, The Politics of Iran, 58; Behrooz, Rebels with a Cause, 92--3. 13. AFME, "Third Annual Report," 20, 23--4. 14. Ramparts reported in 1967 that the CIA provided the AFME with more than 90% of its income, most of which went to the organization's department of student affairs. Ramparts claimed that the transition occurred when Edward W. Overton, Jr became AFME vice president. Mark Gasiorowski revealed that CIA employees were active in the AFME prior to 1960. Refer to Ramparts editors, "How the CIA Turns Foreign Students into Traitors"; and Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah, 128--9 n. 83--4. On students and CIA front organizations, see particularly Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, 123--48. For a discussion of Harvard's international seminar, refer to Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century, 116--30. 15. Memorandum from Phillips Talbot to Dean Rusk, "Agitational Activities of Anti-Shah Iranian Students in the United States," October 5, 1963, FRUS 1961--1963, Vol. XVIII, 723--25: document #333; Pendar: A Journal of Iranian Students in America 2, nos 1--2 (Fall 1960--Winter 1961): 22--3. 16. Background Paper Prepared in the Department of State, "Visit of the Shah of Iran, August 22--24, 1967, Anti-Shah Activities in the U.S.," August 15, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 407: document #222. 17. Matin-asgari, Iranian Student Opposition to the Shah, 11, 42--4, 50--5. 18. For an examination of American support for foreign security agencies, see Kuzmarov, "Modernizing Repression." On torture under the regime of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, refer to Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, 73--123. 19. CISNU, Was It a Plot to Kill the Shah or Is It a Conspiracy to Silence the Students?, 6--7. 20. Milani, Tales of Two Cities, 98. 21. Nafisi, Things I've Been Silent About, 203. Nafisi offers a similar recollection in Reading Lolita in Tehran, 85. For the predominance of Maoism in the ISAUS by the late 1960s, refer to Matin-asgari, Iranian Student Opposition to the Shah, 98. 22. CIA Report, "Restless Youth," September 4, 1968, National Security File, Intelligence File, Box 3, LBJL. 23. The ISAUS printed regularly names of individuals who endorsed their cause. See, for instance, The Regime of the Shah Steps up Political Repression in Iran as it Prepares for the Celebration of the 2500 Year of Iranian Monarchy. Also refer to Russell, "Inside the Shah's Prisons." 24. ISAUS, Iranian Peoples' Movement 1953--1973, 17. 25. Airgram A-56 from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Youth in Iran: Assessment by Embassy Youth Committee," February 22, 1971, FRUS 1969--1976, Vol. E-4: document #116, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d116 (accessed December 21, 2010); Nafisi, Things I've Been Silent About, 201. 26. "From the Iranian Students Association in the United States," The Black Panther 5, no. 24 (1970). 27. "Iranian Efforts to Lure Back Students," London Times, August 10, 1968; Sullivan, Exiled Memories, 63. 28. Telegram from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Iranian Purchase of Soviet Arms," January 24, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII: document #185, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v22/d185 (accessed December 14, 2010). 29. "Letter from President Johnson to the Shah of Iran, November 28, 1967," FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII: document #250, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v22/d250 (accessed December 13, 2010). 30. Nirumand, Iran: The New Imperialism in Action, 6; Bauer, Everybody Talks about the Weather, 39--40, 171--7. 31. Telegram from US Mission in Berlin to Department of State, "Anti-Shah Demonstrators in Berlin," June 2, 1967, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2215, folder POL 7 IRAN 6/1/67, RG 59, NA; Airgram from US Mission in Berlin to Department of State, "Senat Protocol Chief's Comments on Visit of the Shah," June 13, 1967, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2215, folder POL 7 IRAN 6/1/67, RG 59, NA; Airgram from American Embassy in Tehran to Department of State, "Bi-Weekly Political Report, Iran, 5/28/67--6/10/67," June 10, 1967, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2214, folder POL 2 IRAN 1/1/67, RG 59, NA. For brief historical accounts of the demonstration refer to Fraser, 1968, 144; Klimke, "West Germany," in Klimke and Scharloth, 1968 in Europe, 97, 103; and Matin-asgari, Iranian Student Opposition to the Shah, 97--8. See especially Slobodian, "Dissident Guests". 32. Nirumand, Iran: The New Imperialism in Action, 6. 33. Airgram from American Consul in Zurich to Department of State, "Talk by Bahman Nirumand at Zurich University," December 18, 1967, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2214, folder POL IRAN 1/1/67, RG 59, NA. 34. Airgram from Department of State to American Embassy in Vienna, "Iranian Student Activities in Austria," February 20, 1964, GRDS, CFPF, 1964--66, box 2334, folder POL 23--8, RG 59, NA. 35. Intelligence Memorandum (Addendum to Intelligence Memorandum 117/67, June 5, 1967), "The Shah of Iran and His Policies in the Aftermath of the Arab-Israeli War," August 18, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 411. 36. Meyer, Quiet Diplomacy, 82. 37. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 173--4. 38. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Senatorial Criticism of Iran," July 21, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 395: document #215. 39. Memorandum from Richard Helms to Robert McNamara, "The Shah of Iran," May 16, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 366: document # 197. 40. See MacQueen and Oliveira, "'Grocer meets Butcher'"; McPherson, Yankee No!, 9--37; and Manela The Wilsonian Moment. For a contemporary account of the demonstrations that shook Tokyo in May--June 1960 and forced President Eisenhower to cancel his trip to Japan, refer to Reischauer, "The Broken Dialogue with Japan." 41. Lippmann quoted in Zahniser and Weis, "A Diplomatic Pearl Harbor?," 163. 42. Background paper prepared in the Department of State, "Visit of the Shah of Iran August 22--24, 1967, Anti-Shah Activities in the U.S.," August 15, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 407--8: document # 222. 43. Telegram from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Shah's Visit in Suspense," May 10, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 361--2: document #193. 44. Telegram from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Shah's Visit in Suspense," May 10, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 361--2: document #193. 45. Telegram from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Shah and Fulbright," May 12, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 363--5: document #195. 46. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Senatorial Criticism of Iran," July 21, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 395: document # 215. 47. James T. Yenckel, "Iran Students Picket CIA's Headquarters," Washington Post, Times Herald, August 21, 1967; "CIA Picketed by Iranians Against Shah," Baltimore Sun, August 21, 1967. 48. Memorandum from Arthur McCafferty to Walt Rostow, August 22, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 415: document #227. 49. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Shah's Washington Visit," August 26, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 428--9: document #237; "Shah of Iran Received," Washington Post, Times Herald, August 23, 1967. The American press reported extensively on the Washington protest. See, for instance, Hendrick Smith, "Shah Welcomed at White House," New York Times, August 23, 1967; "Shah Visits President as Protesters Scuffle," Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1967; and Paul W. Ward, "Johnson Sees Shah of Iran," Baltimore Sun, August 23, 1967. 50. Herz, Contacts with the Opposition, 27. Meyer recalls the same instance almost verbatim in Meyer, Quiet Diplomacy, 139. 51. Airgram from American Embassy in Tehran to Department of State, "Bi-Weekly Political Report, Iran, 8/21/67--9/2/67, September 2, 1967, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2214, folder POL 2 IRAN 1/1/67, RG 59, NA. 52. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Shah's Washington Visit," August 26, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 428--9: document #237. 53. Johns, "The Johnson Administration, the Shah of Iran, and the Changing Pattern of U.S.-Iranian Relations," 88. 54. Hendrick Smith, "Shah Welcomed at White House," New York Times, August 23, 1967. 55. See Fain, American Ascendance and British Retreat in the Persian Gulf Region, 141. 56. Memorandum from Walt Rostow to President Johnson, "The Shah's Visit," June 11, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 522--3: document #292. 57. "What are the Brotherly Hands up to?," The Economist, November 23, 1968, in CISNU, Documents on the Pahlavi Reign of Terror in Iran, 165--6. 58. Airgram from American Embassy in Vienna to Department of State, "Anti-Shah Demonstration by Iranian Students," February 16, 1968, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 1/1/68, RG 59, NA. 59. Telegram from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "CIA and Students," May 13, 1967, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 365--6: document #196. 60. Telegram from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Shah's Preoccupations," March 14, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 479--81: document #268. 61. Pahlavi, Answer to History, 146. 62. Humphrey's comments from a May 1961 issue of Newsweek are quoted in Russell, "Freedom in Iran," in ISAUS, Iran in Turmoil, 10. Also refer to Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 136--7. 63. Jerome, The Man in the Mirror, 59. 64. "Names & Faces in the News," Boston Globe, June 11, 1968. 65. Memorandum from Dean Rusk to President Johnson, "Invitation to the Shah of Iran during Visit to U.S.," March 3, 1968, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 1/1/68, RG 59, NA; Memorandum from Walt Rostow to President Johnson, "Appointment for the Shah of Iran," March 6, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 476: document #266. 66. On Pahlavism, refer to Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 319--78. 67. Memorandum from Walt Rostow to President Johnson, "Appointment for the Shah of Iran," March 6, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 476: document #266; Telegram from American Embassy in Iran [Thacher] to Department of State, "Shah's Visit," May 29, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 518: document #289; Rafizadeh, Witness, 153--5; Nina McCain, "Just Not Enough Rain Checks," Boston Globe, June 14, 1968; Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Tehran, June 14, 1968, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2215, folder POL 7 IRAN 6/1/68, RG 59, NA. For the text of the shah's speech at Harvard refer to Saleh, Cultural Ties between Iran and the United States, 331--42. 68. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Tehran, June 14, 1968, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2215, folder POL 7 IRAN 6/1/68, RG 59, NA. 69. Rafizadeh, Witness, 155. 70. "Site at U. of C. Dedicated by Shah of Iran," Chicago Tribune, June 16, 1968; "Chicago Students Protest Campus Dedication by Shah," New York Times, June 16, 1968. There was a large Iranian community in Chicago, refer to Akbari and Khounani, Iranians in Chicagoland. 71. Memorandum from Walt Rostow to President Johnson, "Arms Agreement with the Shah," June 12, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 528: document #296; Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Shah's Visit to US," June 13, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 529: document #297. 72. "Protesters Disrupt U.N. Parley in India," Chicago Tribune, February 2, 1968. 73. "Split Widens at the Sofia Festival," London Times, August 5, 1968. 74. Daryl E. Lembke, "Mayor of Berkeley Spat Upon," Los Angeles Times, July 1, 1968. 75. New Left Notes 3, no. 21 (1968): 4. 76. CIA Report, "Restless Youth," September 4, 1968, National Security File, Intelligence File, Box 3, LBJL. 77. Pahlavi, Answer to History, 16--17; Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 130. 78. ISAUS, Iranian Peoples' Movement, 1953--1973, 3. 79. Rafizadeh, Witness, 247--8. 80. Memorandum from Dean Rusk to President Johnson, "Your Meeting with the Shah of Iran," June 7, 1968, FRUS 1964--1968, Vol. XXII, 519: document #290. 81. Memorandum from Parker T. Hart to Benjamin H. Read, "Desire of Iranian Prime Minister to Meet with President-elect Nixon," November 19, 1968, FRUS1964-1968, Vol. XXII, 561: document #315. 82. "The Black Side of the Shah's Revolution," Observer FNS, February 12, 1969, in CISNU, Documents on the Pahlavi Reign of Terror in Iran, 176. 83. Airgram from American Embassy in Vienna to Department of State, "Demonstrations Against U.S. Vietnam Policy and Shah of Iran Combine," January 24, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN, RG 59, NA. 84. CISNU, Political Repression in Iran, 22. 85. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Tehran, "March Against Iranian San Francisco Consulate General," February 6, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2220, folder POL 17 IRAN-US, RG 59, NA. 86. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 173. 87. ISAUS, Dhofar. 88. ISAUS, Iran's Kent State and Baton Rouge. 89. Telegram from American Embassy in Tehran to Department of State, "Shah Visit Planning -- Security Measures," October 14, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA. On SAVAK infiltration of Iranian student organizations, refer to ISAUS, On the Violation of Human Rights in Iran, 8; and Sullivan, Exiled Memories, 187. The shah conceded in the mid-1970s on "60 Minutes" that there were SAVAK agents operating in the United States to monitor the activities of Iranian dissidents. For segments of the interview, refer to "The Shah, on Israel, Corruption, Torture, and …," New York Times, October 22, 1976. 90. Telegram from American Embassy in Tehran to Department of State, "Shah Visit Planning -- Security Measures," October 14, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA; Telegram from American Embassy in Tehran to Department of State, "Shah Visit Planning -- Security Measures," October 9, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA. 91. Telegram from the American Embassy in Tehran to the Department of State, "Shah's Visit to Washington," May 26, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA; Telegram from American Embassy in Tehran to Department of State, "Shah Visit Planning -- Program of Events," October 12, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA. 92. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Shah Visit -- Security Considerations," September 19, 1969, FRUS 1969--1976, Vol. E-4: document #21, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ (accessed December 13, 2010); Airgram from Department of State to American Embassy in Tehran, "Visit of the Shah to Washington, October 1969," November 3, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA. 93. Airgram from Department of State to American Embassy in Tehran, "Visit of the Shah to Washington, October 1969," November 3, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA; "Shah Here for State Visit; Students to Stage Protest," New York Times, October 18, 1969. 94. "Iranian Students Demonstrate Against the Shah," New York Times, October 19, 1969; "Shah Pickets, Police Clash," Chicago Tribune, October 19, 1969. 95. Airgram from Department of State to American Embassy in Tehran, "Visit of the Shah to Washington, October 1969," November 3, 1969, GRDS, CFPF, 1967--1969, box 2216, folder POL 7 IRAN 12/1/69, RG 59, NA. 96. "Iranian Students Demonstrate Against the Shah," New York Times, October 19, 1969. 97. Telegram from Department of State to American Embassy in Iran, "Shah Visit -- Security Considerations," September 19, 1969, FRUS 1969--1976, Vol. E-4: document #21, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ (accessed on December 13, 2010). 98. Westad, The Global Cold War. 99. Green, We Cannot Remain Silent. On US support for unpopular rulers throughout the global south, see especially Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships. 100. Gasiorowski, "The Qarani Affair and Iranian Politics." 101. Paper by Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff, "Our Policy in Iran," October 20, 1962, FRUS 1961--1963, Vol. XVIII: document #85, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v18/d85 (accessed December 14, 2010). 102. Briefing Memorandum from John D. Jernegan to Averill Harriman, "Your Meeting with the Shah of Iran, Tuesday, May 18, 1965," May 17, 1965, GRDS, CFPF, 1964--1966, box 2333, folder POL 15-1, 5/1/65, RG 59, NA. 103. Herz, Contacts with the Opposition, 27, 25. 104. There is a growing literature on anti-Americanism. See, for instance, Friedman, "Anti-Americanism and U.S. Foreign Relations"; Makdisi, Faith Misplaced; and McPherson, Yankee No! 105. Airgram A-56 from American Embassy in Iran to Department of State, "Youth in Iran: Assessment by Embassy Youth Committee," February 22, 1971: document #116, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve04/d116 (accessed August 20, 2010). 106. For biographies of these individuals, refer to Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism, 186--93. Chehabi discusses Yazdi, Qotbzadeh, Banisadr, and Chamran within the context of their involvement in the Liberation Movement of Iran, or the Freedom Movement of Iran. 107. Milani, Tales of Two Cities, 101. 108. "From the Campus to the Street," Time, December 17, 1979, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920701-1,00.html (accessed 23 January 2009). 109. Monteith, American Culture in the 1960s, 7.
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