Two Ways of Looking at Fascism
2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 22; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/08854300802083331
ISSN1745-2635
Autores Tópico(s)Italian Fascism and Post-war Society
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgments Thanks to Dan Berger, Chip Berlet, Roger Griffin, Don Hamerquist, Karl Kersplebedeb, Jonathan Scott, Victor Wallis, and Xtn for critical comments and suggestions. Notes 1. Matthew N. Lyons, "Is the Bush Administration Fascist?" New Politics 11 (2), Winter 2007, www.wpunj.edu/newpol/issue42/Lyons42.htm 2. See for example, Gus Hall, "The hidden GOP agenda: Right-wing control of Republican Party stands as a wake-up call to the nation," People's Weekly World, August 24, 1996, www.pww.org/archives96/96–08–24–1.html; Jack Barnes, "Fascism: not a form of capitalism but a way to maintain capitalist rule," The Militant, September 4, 2006, www.themilitant.com/2006/7033/703356.html; Revolutionary Communist Party, USA, "The Battle For the Future Will Be Fought From Here Forward!" December 2004, http://rwor.org/future/web.htm; Eric Hass, The Reactionary Right: Incipient Fascism (New York Labor News: 1963; online edited edition 2007), www.socialistlaborparty. org/pdf/others/reactionary_right.pdf; Anis Shivani, "Is America Becoming Fascist?" CounterPunch, October 26, 2002, http://www.counterpunch.org/shivani1026.html; Alan Nasser, "The Threat of US Fascism: An Historical Precedent," Common Dreams, August 2, 2007, www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/08/02/2933/; and the numerous progressive websites that invoke Laurence Britt's "Fourteen Identifying Characteristics of Fascism" or Bertram Gross's 1980 book Friendly Fascism. 3. Gregory Meyerson and Michael Joseph Roberto, "It Could Happen Here," October 2006, www.monthlyreview.org/1006meyerson.htm 4. Extract from 13th Enlarged Executive of the Communist International (ECCI) Plenum (held in December 1933) on "Fascism, the War Danger, and the Tasks of the Communist Parties," reprinted in International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus, ed. Roger Griffin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 59. 5. Leon Trotsky, "What is National Socialism?" 1933, published 1943; reprinted in The Age of Permanent Revolution: A Trotsky Anthology, ed. Isaac Deutscher (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1964), 181. 6. David Lethbridge, "The Marxist–Leninist Theory of Fascism," The Bethune Institute for Anti-Fascist Studies, 1999, http://bethuneinstitute.org/documents/mltheory.html 7. T.W. Mason, "The Primacy of Politics – Politics and Economics in National Socialist Germany," in The Nature of Fascism: Proceedings of a conference held by the Reading University Graduate School of Contemporary European Studies (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968), 165–95. 8. Mason, "The Primacy of Politics", 179. 9. Mason, "The Primacy of Politics", 191f. 10. Ian Kershaw, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, 2nd ed. (London: Edward Arnold, 1989), 44–60; Jane Caplan, "Theories of Fascism: Nicos Poulantzas as Historian," in Radical Perspectives on the Rise of Fascism in Germany, 1919–1945, ed. Michael N. Dobkowski and Isidor Walliman (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1989), 149 n.29. 11. Franklin Hugh Adler, Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The political development of the industrial bourgeoisie, 1906–1934 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 347. 12. August Thalheimer, "On Fascism," 1928; reprinted in Marxists in the Face of Fascism: Writings by Marxists on Fascism from the Interwar Period, ed. David Beetham (Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble, 1984), 188. 13. Thalheimer, "On Fascism," 191. 14. Thalheimer, "So-called Social-fascism," 1929; reprinted in Marxists in the Face of Fascism, ed. Beetham, 196. 15. Thalheimer, "On Fascism," 191, 194. 16. Thalheimer, "On Fascism," 190, 192f. 17. Caplan, "Theories of Fascism" (note 10), 143f. 18. Mihaly Vajda, Fascism as a Mass Movement (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1976), 13, 93. 19. Vajda, Fascism as a Mass Movement, 93, 75, 8, 105. 20. Vajda, Fascism as a Mass Movement, 17, 24, 19f. 21. Vajda, Fascism as a Mass Movement, 24f. 22. Xtn, "Introduction," in Confronting Fascism: Discussion Documents for a Militant Movement (Montreal, Quebec: Kersplebedeb; Chicago: Chicago Anti-Racist Action and Arsenal Magazine, 2002), 1–13. 23. J. Sakai, "The Shock of Recognition" in Confronting Fascism, 88f, 95. 24. Don Hamerquist, "Fascism & Anti-Fascism," in Confronting Fascism, 16. 25. Hamerquist, "Fascism & Anti-Fascism," 38; Sakai, "Shock of Recognition," 104. 26. Sakai, "Shock of Recognition," 94, 89, 93f. 27. Sakai, "Shock of Recognition," 91, 121. 28. Hamerquist, "Fascism & Anti-Fascism," 27. 29. Hamerquist, "Fascism & Anti-Fascism," 24. 30. Sakai, "Shock of Recognition," 94. 31. David D. Roberts, The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979); Geoff Eley, "What Produces Fascism: Preindustrial Traditions or a Crisis of the Capitalist State?" in Radical Perspectives on the Rise of Fascism in Germany, ed. Dobkowski and Walliman, 78f. 32. Eley, "What Produces Fascism," 85. 33. Eley, "What Produces Fascism," 83; Conan Fischer, Stormtroopers: A Social, Economic and Ideological Analysis, 1929–35 (Boston: George Allen & Unwin, 1983). 34. Hamerquist, "Fascism & Anti-Fascism," 41. 35. Xtn, "Introduction," 11–13; Matthew Lyons, "Notes on Women and Right-Wing Movements." Three Way Fight blog, September 2005; revised text, www.scils.rutgers.edu/∼lyonsm/WomenAndRight.html 36. Roger Griffin, "Section II: The Search for the Fascist Minimum: Presentation," in International Fascism (note 4), 52f. 37. Griffin, "Notes towards the definition of fascist culture: the prospects of synergy between Marxist and liberal heuristics," Renaissance and Modern Studies 42 (Autumn) 2001, 12. 38. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London: Pinter Publishers, 1991; New York: Routledge, 1996), 11; Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 21. 39. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 32–39. 40. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 37. 41. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 38. 42. Griffin, "Notes towards the definition of fascist culture," 12, 13. 43. Griffin, "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," in Revolutions and Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1989, ed. David Parker (New York: Routledge, 1999). 44. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 48. 45. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 47. 46. Griffin, "The 'Post-Fascism' of the Alleanza nazionale: A case-study in Ideological Morphology," Journal of Political Ideologies 1 (2), 1996, 123–46. 47. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 121. 48. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 123. 49. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 166–74; Griffin, "Europe for the Europeans: Fascist Myths of the European New Order 1922–92," Humanities Research Centre Occasional Paper, no. 1, 1994. 50. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 208–11. 51. Griffin, Nature of Fascism, 220. 52. See Griffin's essays entitled "Fascism" written for Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism, ed. Brenda Brasher (Massachusetts: Berkshire Reference Works, 2001); The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, ed. Bron Taylor and Jeffrey Kaplan (Continuum International Publishers, 2003); and The Encyclopedia of Religion and Politics, draft February 11, 2000. 53. George Mosse, quoted in Griffin, "Notes towards the definition of fascist culture." 54. Griffin, "Fascism," Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism. 55. Griffin, "Fascism." 56. Nikki Keddie, "The New Religious Politics and Women Worldwide: A Comparative Study," Journal of Women's History 10 (4), Winter 1999, 11–34, http://iupjournals. org/jwh/jwh10–4.html 57. "Nation State – Out of Date?" Third Way, no. 8, July 25, 1991, 3. 58. Griffin, "Introduction," in International Fascism, 4. 59. Griffin, "Notes towards the definition of fascist culture." 60. Dave Renton, Fascism: Theory and Practice (London: Pluto Press, 1999), 24; Mark Neocleous, Fascism, Concepts in Social Thought Series (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 38. 61. In a previous draft of this essay, I offered a version of this definition that had a different final clause, stating that fascism "challenges capitalist control of the state while defending class exploitation." Thanks to Don Hamerquist for pointing out that this violated methodological empathy, since many neo-fascists either ignore or disavow class exploitation, although they glorify hierarchy, authority, and discipline. 62. Chip Berlet and Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America (New York: Guilford, 2000); Margaret Canovan, Populism (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981). 63. The following sketches of the Patriot movement and the Christian right are based on Berlet and Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America, chapters 11, 12, and 14. 64. See Martin A. Lee, The Beast Reawakens (Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1997); Jérôme Jamin, "The Extreme Right in Europe: Fascist or Mainstream?" The Public Eye 19 (1), Spring 2005, www.publiceye.org/magazine/v19n1/jamin_extreme.html; Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (eds), Neo-Fascism in Europe (New York: Longman Publishing, 1991). 65. See Joel Beinin and Joe Stork (eds), Political Islam: Essays from Middle East Report (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Said Amir Arjomand, "Iran's Islamic Revolution in Comparative Perspective," World Politics 38 (3), April 1986, 383–414; Abdel Azim Ramadan, "Fundamentalist Influence in Egypt: The Strategies of the Muslim Brotherhood and the Takfir Groups," in Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, The Fundamentalism Project, Volume 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 152–83; Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, Hizbu'llah: Politics and Religion (London: Pluto Press, 2002); Nikki R. Keddie and Farah Monian, "Militancy and Religion in Contemporary Iran," in Fundamentalisms and the State, ed. Marty and Appleby, 511–38. 66. See Matthew Lyons, "Defending my enemy's enemy," Three Way Fight blog, August 3, 2006, http://threewayfight.blogspot.com/2006/08/defending-my-enemys-enemy.html; and Lyons, "Further thoughts on Hezbollah," Three Way Fight, August 26, 2006, http://threewayfight.blogspot.com/2006/08/further-thoughts-on-hezbollah.html 67. See Arun R. Swamy, "Hindu Nationalism – What's Religion Got to Do With It?," Occasional Papers Series, Asian-Pacific Center for Security Studies, 2003); Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics, 1925 to the 1990s (New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1999); Thomas Blom Hansen, The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999); Vijay Prashad, Namaste Sharon: Hindutva and Sharonism Under US Hegemony, Signpost Series (New Delhi: LeftWord Books, 2003). 68. Martin A. Lee, "The Fascist Response to Globalization," Los Angeles Times, November 28, 1999. For a parallel argument, see Roberto Lovato, "Far From Fringe: Minutemen Mobilizes Whites Left Behind by Globalization," The Public Eye 19 (3), Winter 2005, www.publiceye.org/magazine/v19n3/lovato_fringe.html 69. "PART's Perspective on the Militias," Turning The Tide 8 (2), Summer 1995. 70. Radhika Desai, "Forward March of Hindutva Halted?" New Left Review 30, November–December 2004, 61. On Hindu nationalist ambivalence about globalization, see Jaffrelot, Hindu Nationalist Movement, 432, 492f; Hansen, Saffron Wave, 171f. 71. Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour (London: Zed, 1986), 118. Regina Cochrane has criticized Mies for "populist and maternal feminist tendencies" that are anti-modernist, essentialize motherhood, and romanticize poverty. However, I believe that Mies's point about homemaking that I cite here remains valid and reflects a useful critique of capitalist globalization's gender dynamics. See Cochrane, "'They Aren't Really Poor': Ecofeminism, Global Justice, and 'Culturally-Perceived Poverty,'" Center for Global Justice, 2006, www.globaljusticecenter.org/papers2006/cochraneENG.htm
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