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Governing peacekeeping: the role of authority and expertise in the case of sexual violence and trauma

2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 35; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03085140600844910

1469-5766

Carol Harrington,

Global Peace and Security Dynamics

Abstract Abstract The surprising authority of gender expertise on sexual violence within post-Cold War peacekeeping can be understood by tracing how sexual violence became linked with political torture and combat violence in peacekeeping security rationality. The linkage emerged from the development of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) theory within anti-Vietnam war activism, which gained international authority during the 1980s. Post-Cold War narratives of ‘multi-dimensional’ peacekeeping as the policing and rehabilitation of perpetrators and victims for self-government drew on PTSD expertise on ‘integrity violations’, thus problematizing sexual violence. However, gender expertise should not be dismissed as providing ideological cover for imperialist projects: the contingent authority gender expertise has claimed has disrupted the peacekeeping narrative by representing peacekeeping operations as fostering flourishing sex industries in which integrity violations are a norm. Keywords: peacekeeping operationspost-traumatic stress disorderpsychosocial expertisefeminist orientalismgender bureaucracysexual violence I am grateful to Alexander Maxwell, Lesley Patterson and Economy and Society's editors and reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. Notes 1. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, in his seminal An Agenda for Peace (1992 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. 1992. An Agenda for Peace, New York: United Nations. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), distinguished between ‘peacekeeping’, ‘peace-building’, ‘peacemaking’ and ‘peace enforcement’, sparking an on-going debate about taxonomies and terminology. Nevertheless, the term ‘peacekeeping’ is still in common usage as incorporating all of these forms of activity. I will use the term ‘PKO’ as an umbrella for various forms of military operation in the name of peace. Since my interest is in discourses and practices of peacekeeping I use the label for operations discussed in scholarly and policy literature as peacekeeping or peace-support operations. This should not be taken as a normative evaluation of them as ‘really’ about peace or not. 2. The terms ‘sexual abuse’ ‘harassment’ and ‘exploitation’ have their own nuances; however, for the sake of brevity this article uses ‘sexual violence’ as a cover term. 3. This feminist debate could be situated within a wider literature on the growing authority of human rights expertise within contemporary peacekeeping that tends either to applaud this trend as evidence of the forward march of universal human rights norms and growing recognition of the links between individual rights and collective security in a period of ‘new wars’ characterized by new forms of brutality or to analyse it as ideological cover for states’ brutal pursuit of profit and power (Bellamy et al. 2004; Pugh 2004 Pugh, Michael. 2004. ‘Peacekeeping and critical theory’. International Peacekeeping, 11(1): 39–58. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Carey and Richmond 2003 Carey , Henry F. and Richmond , Oliver P. (eds) (2003) International Peacekeeping , Special Issue, Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs 10 (1) : 103 – 19 . [Google Scholar]; Douzinas 2003 Douzinas, Costas. 2003. ‘Humanity, military humanism and the new moral order’. Economy and Society, 32(2): 159–83. 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[Google Scholar]; Kaldor and Basker 1997 Kaldor , Mary and Vashee , Basker (eds) (1997) Restructuring the Global Military Sector , Vol. 1, New Wars , London : Pinter . [Google Scholar]; Chappell and Evans 1997 Chappell , Duncan and Evans , John (1997) The Role, Preparation and Performance of Civilian Police in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations , Sydney . Available at: (accessed 26 June 2005) . [Google Scholar]). 4. Rose (1998 Rose, Nikolas. 1998. Inventing Our Selves: Psychology, Power, and Personhood, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]) elaborates on the significance of ‘psy’ expertise for contemporary governmentality. 5. The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 6. See DAW leader Carolyn Hannan's CV at . Job descriptions for the three ‘chief’ positions in this division and the composition of the Commission on the Status of Women are on the DAW site. See UNIFEM's executive director Noeleen Heyzer's CV at . UNIFEM is associated with the UN Development Project. It works closely with and funds women's NGOs. See figures and grant awarding procedures at the UNIFEM website. 7. See an index of UN resources on the topic at . 8. Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Kuwait under Iraqi Occupation (Kalin Report) prepared by Walter Kalin, special rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, in accordance with Commission Resolution 1991/67, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1992/26 (16 January 1992), par. 182, published in Kalin (1994 Kalin, Walter. 1994. Human Rights in Times of Occupation: The Case of Kuwait, London: Sweet & Maxwell. [Google Scholar]). The United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) set up to award damages to victims of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, funded by a 30 per cent levy on Iraqi oil revenue, accepted sexual assault as a cause of serious injury. The impact of knowledge of sexual violence as a cause of PTSD can already be seen in the work of the UNCC, which recorded that ‘[t]he Commission's medical expert was of the view that many rape victims do not seek the help of a physician, as they may wish to suppress the memory of the rape’ (UNCC 1994 United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) ( 1994 ) Recommendations Made by the Panel of Commissioners Concerning Individual Claims for Serious Injury or Death (Category ‘B’ Claims) , UN Doc. S/AC.26/1994/1 (May 26), p. 263 . [Google Scholar]: 263). 9. Security Council 1992, resolution 798, December 18. 10. Following the Security Council interest, the General Assembly passed a resolution defining ‘violence against women’ as ‘gender-based violence [resulting in] physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life’ (1993, GA resolution 48/104). In 1994 the Assembly created a new post of special rapporteur to research this issue (Pietilä and Vickers 1996 Pietilä, Hilkka and Vickers, Jeanne. 1996. Making Women Matter: The Role of the United Nations, 3rd edn, London: Zed Books. [Google Scholar]: 142–5). 11. Prosecuter v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Case No. IT-96-23T. Judgement, 22 February 2001. 12. See, for example the testimony of Mr Camile at ‘Winter Soldier Investigation: Testimony given in Detroit, Michigan on January 31, 1971, February 1 and 2 1971’, sponsored by Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Inc. . 13. American Psychiatric Association (1994: 427–9). Reprinted at . 14. Ibid 15. The first European Conference on Traumatic Stress was held in England in 1988 and the ‘International’ was added to the organization's name in 1990. A European Society (ESTSS) was then set up and held regular conferences, along with an affiliated society for French speakers and an Australian and Kuwait Society (Bloom 2000 Bloom , Sandra L. (2000) ‘Our hearts and our hopes are turned to peace: origins of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies’ , Arieh Y. Shalev , Rachel Yehuda and Alexander C McFarlane (eds) International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma , New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers . Available at: . (accessed 14 July 2006) [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]: electronic p. 4). In 1988 the Society also joined the World Federation for Mental Health, which further strengthened the international authority of PTSD knowledge. 16. UN literature describes such PKOs as ‘second generation’, ‘multi-dimensional’ and ‘complex’. PKOs which are led by non-UN forces, such as NATO, are called ‘hybrid’ (see Jones and Cherif 2003 Jones , Bruce with Cherif , Feryal (2003) ‘Evolving models of peacekeeping: policy implications and responses’ , External Study for the Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, United Nations . [Google Scholar]; Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit 2003 Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit (2003) Handbook on United Nations Multidimensional Peacekeeping Operations , New York : Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, United Nations . [Google Scholar]). Some examples are UNAMIC followed by UNTAC in Cambodia (1991–2 and 1992–3), UNMIBH in Bosnia (1995–2002) and UNMIK in Kosovo (1999–present) all of which supported fundamental rebuilding of political institutions. Cases might also be considered ‘multi-dimensional’ when the UN is involved in monitoring and training local police and assisting with law and order and/or supplies or authorizes forces to secure an environment for the delivery of humanitarian assistance, for example UNOSOM I and II in Somalia (1992–3 and 1993–5), UNPROFOR in Croatia, Bosnia and Macedonia (1992–5), UNCRO and UNPSG in Croatia (1995–6, and 1998), UNSMIH, UNTMIH and MIPONUH in Haiti (1996–7, 1997 and 1997–2000), MINUGUA in Guatemala (1997), MONUA in Angola (1997–9), MONUC in Congo (1999–present) and UNMISET in East Timor (2002–5) (source for character of the operations: Bellamy et al. 2004: Appendix). However, given the uniqueness of each operation and the phenomenon known as ‘mission creep’ in the UN literature it is difficult to taxonomize the various PKOs precisely according to these or other labels (but see Jones and Cherif 2003: 15–17 and Bellamy et al. 2004: 12–14 for discussion of taxonomies). NATO, British and US military doctrine defines peace support operations (PSOs) as, in British Army terms, ‘multifunctional operations involving military forces and diplomatic and humanitarian agencies. They are designed to achieve humanitarian goals or a long-term political settlement and are conducted impartially in support of a UN or OSCE mandate’ (HMSO 1999: 1-1, in Bellamy et al. 2004: 165). For the US the adoption of the term ‘PSO’ coincided with a critique of UN competence and commitment to using tough measures to enforce peace independently of UN willingness to act (Pugh 2004 Pugh, Michael. 2004. ‘Peacekeeping and critical theory’. International Peacekeeping, 11(1): 39–58. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]: 43–4). 17. For example, Amnesty International report that 40,000 UN troops arrived in Kosovo in 1999, along with hundreds of UN civilian staff and staff from more than 250 NGOs. They estimate that the ‘international population’ makes up around 2 per cent of the Kosovo population (Amnesty International 2004: 7, 48). In East Timor the authorized strength of UNTAET was 9,150 military personnel and 1,640 civilian police and the UN operation included 737 international civilian personnel and 1,745 local civilian staff; in addition to this there were NGO personnel (see ). In the Democratic Republic of Congo, as of 30 April 2005, there were 15,790 troops, 546 military observers, 175 civilian police, 751 international civilian personnel, 1,211 local civilian personnel and 458 United Nations Volunteers. See . In Bosnia and Herzegovina the maximum strength of the UN operation was 2,047 civilian police and military liaison personnel (November 1997) in addition to NGO personnel and NATO troops (initially a military force of 20 000 was authorised); see and . 18. For example, World Bank President James Wolfensohn said in 1997 that aid recipients should be ‘in the driver's seat – exercising choices and setting their own objectives for themselves’ (World Bank President James Wolfensohn 1997, ‘The Challenges of Inclusion’ address to the Bank of Governors, Hong Kong, 23 September 1997, p. 9, at , quoted by Abrahamsen 2004: 1454). 19. I base much of this analysis on the four-volume series on psychosocial work by psychiatric experts with peacekeeping experience published by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and available on the UN web site (Becker 2000 Becker Carson (ed.) (2000) Psychosocial Notebook, Vol. 1, Psychological and Trauma Responses in War-Torn Societies: The Case of Kosovo, Geneva: International Organization for Migration . [Google Scholar]; Losi et al. 2001; Losi et al. 2002; Schinina 2004 Schinina , Guglielmo (2004) Psychosocial Notebook, Vol. 4, Psychosocial Support to Groups of Victims of Human Trafficking in Transit Situations , Geneva : International Organization for Migration . [Google Scholar]. At: , accessed 12 June 2005). Peacekeeping authorities have pursued the psychosocial approach to the extent that, for example, Deacon (1997 Deacon , Bob with Hulse , Michelle and Stubbs , Paul (1997) Global Social Policy: International Organisations and the Future of Welfare , London : Sage .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]: 180–1) complains that in Croatia international agencies pursued psychosocial programmes at the expense of ‘community development’. Psychological professionals from the field agree that in the past their programmes have put too much emphasis on therapy for diagnosed individuals. Psychiatrist Jean-Marie Lemaire, who has worked in Bosnia, Kosovo and Algeria, describes psychosocial support practices of screening individuals for PTSD as an ‘embarrassment for my profession’ (Lemaire 2000 Lemaire , Jean-Marie (2000) ‘Disconcerting humanitarian interventions, and the resources of collective healing’ , in Carson Becker (ed.) Psychosocial Notebook, Vol. 1, Psychological and Trauma Responses in War-Torn Societies: The Case of Kosovo , Geneva : International Organization for Migration , pp. 71 – 7 . [Google Scholar]: 72). Pupavac (2001 Pupavac, Vanessa. 2001. ‘Therapeutic governance: psycho-social intervention and trauma risk management’. Disasters, 25(4): 358–72. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2002 Pupavac Vanessa (2002) ‘Pathologizing populations and colonizing minds: international psychosocial programs in Kosovo’ , Alternatives 27 : 489 – 511 .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 2004 Pupavac Vanessa (2004) ‘War on the couch: the emotionology of the new international security paradigm’ , European Journal of Social Theory 7 (2) : 149 – 70 .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) critiques the psychosocial model of conflict and argues that programmes informed by such a model fail to address the material needs of populations at sites of international intervention. 20. A psychiatrist who worked in post-war Uganda says: ‘It was impossible to distinguish those who were victims or who had Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) from others … it soon became clear that the idea of trauma counselling was alien to the tortured and to the Ugandans in general’ (Braken 2000 Bracken , Patrick ( 2000 ) ‘Rethinking the Trauma of War’ in Becker Carson ( ed. ) Psychological and Trauma Responses in War-Torn Societies: The Case of Kosovo. Psychological Notebook Vol. 1 (November) . Geneva : International Organization for Migration , pp. 53 – 59 . [Google Scholar]: 56–7). The psychosocial experts sometimes seem to imply that PTSD is a useful tool for traumatized individuals in ‘Western’ contexts but rarely applicable for non-Westerners recovering from the social trauma peculiar to their non-democratic contexts. For example, a Médecins sans Frontières child psychiatrist says: ‘The western model of psychological assistance, with its focus on the individual and the ventilation of feelings through talking therapy, is culturally alien in many parts of the Balkans, and particularly in rural Muslim societies’ (Jones 2000 Jones , Lynne ( 2000 ) ‘What are the psychosocial domain and role of the mental health professional in conflict and post-conflict situations?’ in Becker Carson ( ed. ) Psychological and Trauma Responses in War-Torn Societies: The Case of Kosova. Psychological Notebook Vol. 1 (November) . Geneva : International Organization for Migration , pp. 61 – 69 . [Google Scholar]: 63). 21. A selection of this sort of literature can be accessed at . 22. For research into NATO countries and military prostitution, see Moon (1997 Moon, Katherine H. S. 1997. Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.–Korea Relations, New York: Columbia University Press. [Google Scholar]) and Enloe (1988 Enloe, Cynthia. 1988. Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives, London: Pandora. [Google Scholar]). For a picture of late nineteenth-/early twentieth-century British practices, see Chatterjee (1999 Chatterjee , Ratnabali (1999) ‘Indian prostitute as a colonial subject: Bengal 1864–1883’ , Re/productions 2 (April), First published in Canadian Woman Studies/Les Cahiers De La Femme 13 (1) . Available at: (accessed 6 July 2005) . [Google Scholar]) and Butler (1874 Butler , Josephine E. (1874) Some Thoughts on the Present Aspect of the Crusade against the State Regulation of Vice , Liverpool : T Brakell, Printer . Available at: (accessed 14 July 2006) . [Google Scholar]). At . 23. The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) imagines peacekeeping populations’ trauma as affected by gender. According to DPKO's gender training manual, ‘[w]omen, with the loss of their male family members, are vulnerable to discrimination and are subjected to human rights violations’, a phrase that in DPKO discussions of gender violence means sexual violence (DPKO 2002 Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) (2002) Gender and Peacekeeping Operations: Generic Training , New York : United Nations . [Google Scholar]: 40). By contrast, the DPKO discusses males as at risk of PTSD from combat and perpetrating atrocities, expecting their symptoms to manifest as continuing violent behaviour (DPKO 2002 Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) (2002) Gender and Peacekeeping Operations: Generic Training , New York : United Nations . [Google Scholar]: 46, 47, 50). Zarkov (2001 Zarkov, Dubravka. 2001. “‘The body of the other man: sexual violence and the construction of masculinity, sexuality and ethnicity in the Croation media’”. In Victims Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence, Edited by: Moser, Caroline O. N. and Clark, Fiona C. 69–82. London: Zed Books. [Google Scholar]) points out, for the Croatian context, that such a narrative needs explanation: the Security Council expert report on sexual violence in the Yugoslav wars documents sexual violence against men. She argues that Croatian media never reported on Croatian men as victims of sexual violence in order to maintain a myth of powerful Croatian masculinity; the media very occasionally reported rapes of Bosnian Muslim men by Serbs. The DPKO's analysis of gendered patterns of trauma likewise continues a narrative of male perpetrators and female victims. 24. See McGrory (2002 McGrory , Daniel (2002) ‘Woman sacked for revealing UN links with sex trade’ , Times online, 7 August. Available at: (accessed 6 June 2005) . [Google Scholar]). 25. The cases were: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Occupied Palestinian territories, East Timor and Sierra Leone. 26. American Embassy Sarajevo (2003a American Embassy Sarajevo (2003a) American Embassy Sarajevo to Secretary of State Washington DC, Subject: Trafficking in Women, Turning a Blind Eye? 0 121236Z OCT 00 Ref: A Sarajevo 9359 and Previous 1 . (U) Classified by Ambassador Thomas J Miller. Unclassified, United States Department of State Review Authority: Frank Tumminia Date/Case ID: 11 Aug 2003 200102920 . [Google Scholar]). 27. US Army Criminal Investigation Command, ‘Sworn Statement’, File number 0065-00CID597, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2 June 2000, on file with Human Rights Watch. (HRW 2002 Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2002) Hopes Betrayed: Trafficking of Women and Girls to Post-Conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina for Forced Prostitution , Human Rights Watch, November , 14 (9) . [Google Scholar]: 63). The memo's use of the anachronistic term ‘white slavery’ recalls the link between the problematization of people ‘trafficking’ and international activism against slavery. Early twentieth-century gender reformers problematized the international trade in women within the sex industry by drawing on arguments used in the anti-slavery movement. However, the racism of representations of ‘white slaves’ and Jewish, Eastern or Black traffickers along with policies that sought to limit female travel because they were at risk of being trafficked diluted feminist enthusiasm for this issue (see Berkovitch 1999 Berkovitch, Nitza. 1999. From Motherhood to Citizenship: Women's Rights and International Organizations, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. [Google Scholar]: 40–1; Rupp 1997 Rupp, Leila J. 1997. Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women's Movement, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [Google Scholar]: 74, 151–2; Whittick 1979 Whittick, Arnold. 1979. Woman into Citizen, London: Athenaeum with Frederick Muller. [Google Scholar]: 76). 28. The man, John Hertz, claimed he bought the woman in order to free her from the brothel because he felt sorry for her, and that she then chose to live with him but could have left whenever she wanted to. The CID seems to have accepted this story and chose not to investigate further even though they confiscated a video of the apparent rape of the woman (Department of the Army, US Army Criminal Investigations Command, 48th MP Detachment (CID), Eagle Base, Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘CID Report of Investigation’, p. 1, on file with Human Rights Watch). 29. The US contracted DynCorp to recruit police and ‘base support’ personnel for Bosnia, (for example, Ben Johnston who was cited above worked on aircraft maintenance). In March 2003 DynCorp was bought by Computer Sciences Corporation. See . In current advertisements it refers to itself as DynCorp International FZ-LLC (DIFZ). 30. Photograph 3 Wax museum display of UN peacekeeper and prostitute, Cambodian Cultural Village, Siem Reap, Cambodia. Photograph by Gordon Sharpless December 2003, in Whitworth (2004 Whitworth, Sandra. 2004. Men, Militarism and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis, London: Lynne Rienner. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]: 69). 31. My observations of how trafficking discourse works within peacekeeping are consistent with Foucault's observations on policing of prostitution (1991 Foucault , Michel (1991 [1977]) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison , trans. Alan Sheridan, London : Penguin .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar] (1977]: 280, 322). Foucault pointed out how surveillance of prostitution provides police with opportunities to extract profit and pleasure from forbidden trade while appearing in control of it. 32. American Embassy Sarajevo (2003b American Embassy Sarajevo (2003b) American Embassy Sarajevo to Secretary of State Washington, INFO USMission USUN New York. Subject: Death of a Thousand Cus [sic]: New Allegations Against the IPTF. O 141618Z DEC 00 Ref: A) Sarajevo 11469 B) Sarajevo 10713 . Classified by DCM Chris HOH. Unclassified 11 August 2003. US Department of State Review Authority: Frank Tummina. Date/Case ID: 11 Aug 2003 200102920 . [Google Scholar]). 33. Within the UN and US, reports of peacekeeper abuses are sometimes talked about as a problem for ‘consent management’. ‘Consent management’, a concept from peace-support operation doctrine, treats consent as constantly having to be constructed and re-constructed. This view has led to attention to public information and media in ‘promoting and maximizing consent’ on PKOs (Bellamy et al. 2004 Bellamy, Alex J., Williams, Paul and Griffin, Stuart. 2004. Understanding Peacekeeping, Cambridge: Polity Press. [Google Scholar]: 170–1; see also Lehmann 1999 Lehmann , Ingrid A. (ed.) (1999) Peacekeeping and Public Information: Caught in the Crossfire , London : Frank Cass . [Google Scholar]). 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In East Timor a gender office was planned, cancelled and the funds re-allocated, then re-instituted without any funds and the position unfilled for a period; when someone was appointed all her energy had to go into fund raising (see NGO Working Group on Women, Peace and Security 2004 NGO Working Group on Women, Peace and Security (2004) Recommendations for the 2004 Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations , 1 April . [Google Scholar]: 1; Whitworth 2004 Whitworth, Sandra. 2004. Men, Militarism and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis, London: Lynne Rienner. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]: 130–2).