The encyclopedia and the university of theory: idealism and the organization of knowledge
2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 21; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/09502360701264519
ISSN1470-1308
Autores Tópico(s)Historical and Literary Studies
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 277. 2. Gianni Vattimo, The Transparent Society, trans. David Webb (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 1. 3. For Bourdieu fields are characteristic of ‘highly differentiated societies’ and thus of modernity. ‘The social cosmos is made up of a number of such relatively autonomous social microcosms’, each with its own logic and ‘network… of objective relations between positions’, its rules of ‘competency’, and each possessing ‘a species of capital… that is efficacious’ in the given field. A field is not static, but is governed by certain ‘regularities’ that preserve its capital: ‘As a space of potential and active forces, the field is also a field of struggles aimed at preserving or transforming the configuration of these forces’ (Pierre Bourdieu and Loic J.D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992], pp. 97–101). 4. Ernst Behler, ‘Language, hermeneutics, and encyclopaedistics’, in German Romantic Literary Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 260–98. See p. 284, p. 282. 5. See Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Shorter Works and Fragments, ed. H.J. and J.R.deJ. Jackson. 2 Vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). 6. Georges Bataille, The Accursed Share: Volume One, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Zone Books, 1988), pp. 19–22. 7. Novalis, Notes for a Romantic Encyclopedia (The Universal Brouillon), trans. David Wood (Albany: State University of New York Press, forthcoming). On Novalis, see David S. Ferris, ‘The Question of a Science: Encyclopedistic Romanticism’, The Wordsworth Circle 35.1 (2004), pp. 2–6. 8. Roger Caillois, ‘A New Plea for Diagonal Science’, in The Edge of Surrealism: A Roger Caillois Reader, ed. Claudine Frank (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 343–47. 9. Concepts are definite notions produced by the ‘understanding’ while ‘ideas’ such as freedom or justice are produced by ‘reason’ and are not necessarily grounded in experience, hence can only be regulative and not constitutive. As Karl Jaspers comments, reason ‘makes things too big for the understanding’ while the understanding ‘make[s] them too little for reason’ (Kant, trans. Ralph Manheim [New York: Harcourt, 1957], p. 46). Jean-François Lyotard and Jean-Loup Thébaud define the idea as a ‘maximization of concepts outside of any knowledge of reality’. ‘The Idea is an almost unlimited use of the concept: one has concepts and then one maximizes them’ (Just Gaming, trans. Wlad Godzich [Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985], p. 75). 10. Idealism can be defined as a specifically philosophical movement committed to dialectical totalization, identity, and system. However, Romanticism is the larger literary-cum-philosophical context within which Idealism emerges as an idea that is continually put under erasure. For as the author of ‘The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism’ (thought to be Hegel, Schelling, or Hölderlin) says: ‘The philosophy of the Spirit is an aesthetic philosophy’ in which “ideas” are made “aesthetic, i.e., mythological' (in Philosophy of German Idealism, ed. Ernst Behler [New York: Continuum, 1987], p. 162). For further discussion of Idealism versus Romanticism see Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe and Jean-Luc Nancy, The Literary Absolute: The Theory of Literature in German Romanticism, trans. Philip Barnard and Cheryl Lester (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), pp. 39–40, pp. 122–23; Ernest Rubinstein, An Episode of Jewish Romanticism: Franz Rosenzweig's The Star of Redemption (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), pp. 8–12, pp. 18–19. 11. F.W.J. Schelling, On University Studies, trans. E.S. Morgan (Athens: University of Ohio Press, 1966), p. 81. On absolute knowledge as an infinite research programme see my ‘First Outline of a System of Theory: Schelling and the Margins of Philosophy, 1799–1815’, in Derrida and the Legacies of Romanticism, Studies in Romanticism (forthcoming, Spring 2007). 12. See G.W.F. Hegel, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline, trans. Stephen A. Taubeneck, in Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline and Critical Writings, ed. Ernst Behler (New York: Continuum, 1990) pp. 45–263; Logic (the ‘Encyclopedia Logic’), trans. William Wallace (Oxford: Clarendon, 1975); Philosophy of Nature, trans. A.V.Miller (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970); also ‘Preface to the System of Philosophy’, trans. A.V. Miller, in Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline and Critical Writings, pp. 1–43. 13. Friedrich Schlegel, ‘Introduction to the Transcendental Philosophy’, in Theory as Practice: A Critical Anthology of Early German Romantic Writings, ed. Jochen Schulte-Sasse et.al. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), p. 255. 14. Hegel, Logic, p. 11. 15. Hegel, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline, p. 53. 16. On system as understood in Britain see Clifford Siskin, ‘The Year of the System’, in 1798: The Year of the Lyrical Ballads, ed. Richard Cronin (London: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 9–31; also Yeo, pp. 175–76. 17. Schelling, On University Studies, p. 78. 18. Jacques Derrida, Eyes of the University: Right to Philosophy 2, trans. Jan Plug et al. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), p. 71. 19. Hegel, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline, pp. 53–4. 20. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage, 1973), pp. 312–18. 21. Hegel, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline, p. 51. 22. Thus Comenius' Ianua has a section on games (see Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: lexicography, learning and language from the clay tablet to the computer [Cambridge University Press, 1988], p.114), while Bandini includes heresies and famous women in his encyclopedia (see Robert Collison, Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages [New York: Hafner, 1966], pp. 70–1). In Vincent of Beauvais' Speculum Maius the circle of learning includes subjects such as crafts (see Collison, pp. 60–1). 23. The De Proprietatibus Rerum of Bartolomeus Anglicus, which follows the model of the mirror of creation, uses an alphabetic arrangement in its section on birds (See M.C. Seymour and Colleagues, Bartholomeus Anglicus and his Encyclopaedia [Aldershot: Ashgate, 1992], p. 136). Indeed, though alphabetic encyclopedias became the dominant form in the Enlightenment, they actually go back a long way: for instance Johann Jacob Hoffmann's Lexicon universale (1677–83) is arranged alphabetically (see Collison, p. 89). 24. Encyclopedia Britannica: or, A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature; Enlarged and Improved, fifth edition, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: Constable and Company, 1817), p. v. 25. Ibid., p. vii. 26. Coleridge, Shorter Works and Fragments, II. 1109. 27. Immanuel Kant, The Conflict of the Faculties, trans. Mary J. Gregor (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992). 28. Schelling, Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature (1797/1803), trans. Errol E. Harris and Peter Heath. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 272n. 29. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, p. 437. 30. Jean-Paul Sartre, Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions, trans. Philip Mairet (London: Methuen, 1962). 31. I use the word without italics to refer to a larger project not entirely contained in the three volumes of the Encyclopedia. 32. See Herbert Schnädelbach, Philosophy in Germany 1831–1933 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), esp. p. 23, for a discussion of three forms of the university: the medieval guild university still in existence at Oxbridge in the nineteenth century, the utilitarian university of the enlightenment, and the research university founded by Humboldt at Berlin. The modern techno-bureaucratic university critiqued by Bill Readings in The University in Ruins as well as by Lyotard in The Postmodern Condition is an attempt to graft the second onto the third model. 33. Bill Readings, The University in Ruins (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 62–69. 34. Jacques Derrida, Rogues: Two Essays on Reason, trans. Psacale-Anne Brault and Michael Naas (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), p. 124. 35. Schelling, On University Studies, p. 41. 36. Schelling, The Philosophy of Art (1800–04/1859), trans. Douglas W. Stott (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989). 37. Schelling, Philosophical Investigations into the Nature of Human Freedom and Related Matters, trans. Priscilla Hayden-Roy, in Philosophy of German Idealism, Ed. Ernst Behler (New York: Continuum, 1987), pp. 217–84. 38. Schelling, Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature, p. 272. 39. Ibid., p. 272n. 40. Hegel, ‘Preface to the System of Philosophy’, p. 16, p. 18. 41. Slavoj Zizek, The Abyss of Freedom, in Slavoj Zizek and F.W.J. Schelling, The Abyss of Freedom/ Ages of the World (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997), pp. 1–104. See p. 13. 42. Hegel, ‘Preface to the System of Philosophy’, p. 18. 43. Derrida, ‘The University Without Condition’, in Without Alibi, ed. and trans. Peggy Kamuf. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), pp. 203–37 See p. 203. 44. G.W. Leibniz, Monadology, in Nicholas Rescher's G.W. Leibniz' Monadology: An Edition for Students (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), pp. 17–29. 45. Gérard Genette, The Architext: An Introduction, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 50–51. 46. Hegel, The Philosophy of Nature, trans. A.V.Miller (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970). 47. Genette, The Architext, p. 41. 48. Ibid. p. 51. 49. Michel Chaouli, The Laboratory of Poetry: Chemistry and Poetics in the Work of Friedrich Schlegel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), p. 82, p. 104, pp. 124–25. 50. Arkady Plotnitsky, ‘Curvatures: Hegel and the Baroque’, in Idealism Without Absolutes: Philosophy And Romantic Culture, eds Tilottama Rajan and Arkady Plotnitsky (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), pp. 123–28. 51. Schelling, Ages of the World (1815), trans. Jason M. Wirth (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). 52. Hegel, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline, p. 54. 53. Hegel, ‘Preface to the System of Philosophy’, p. 29. 54. For a fuller discussion of this section of The Philosophy of Nature, see my essay ‘(In)digestible Material: Illness and Dialectic in Hegel's Philosophy of Nature’, in Eating Romanticism: Cultures of Taste, Theories of Appetite, ed. Timothy Morton (London: Palgrave, 2004), pp. 217–36. 55. Joseph Henry Green, Vital Dynamics: The Hunterian Oration Before the Royal College of Surgeons in London, 17th February 1840 (London: William Pickering, 1840). 56. Kant distinguishes physiological anthropology, or ‘what Nature makes of man’, from a pragmatic anthropology concerned with ‘what man makes, can, or should make of himself as a freely acting being’ (Anthropology From a Pragmatic Point of View, trans. Victor Lyle Dowdell [Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1978], p. 3). The distinction is analogous to that between nature and Spirit. 57. Schelling, Preface to On The World Soul (1810), quoted in Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature, p. 272n. Schelling's reference to the incompleteness of his earlier Ideas presumably alludes to his work on medicine, which draws on the ideas of the Scottish medical theorist John Brown. Schelling attempts to bring medicine into his early systematic work in his 1799 First Outline of a System of the Philosophy of Nature, trans. Keith R. Peterson (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), pp. 158–72. However, he can only do so ‘in the form of an appendix’ (p. 159). 58. Srinivas Aravamudan, Tropicopolitans: Colonialism and Agency, 1688–1804 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 297–98. 59. André Green, ‘Hegel and Freud: Elements for an Improbable Comparison’, in The Work of the Negative, trans. Andrew Weller (London and New York: Free Association Books, 1999), pp. 26–49. 60. Derrida, Eyes of the University, pp. 205–6. 61. Brown does not actually use the terms mentioned, instead using only the term ‘excitability’. Schelling, however, sees irritability and sensibility as forms of Brownian excitability in the Appendix on disease in his First Outline. 62. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, p. 429. 63. Ibid., p. 434–35. 64. Ibid., p. 441. 65. The notion, which is implicit in Hegel's and Schelling's analyses of the part-whole relationship in illness, is elaborated by Coleridge (Shorter Works and Fragments II.1027); John Abernethy, Introductory Lectures, Exhibiting Some of Mr. Hunter's Opinions Regarding Diseases (London: Longman, Hurst and Rees, 1823), pp. 101–02, p. 269; and J.H.Green, Vital Dynamics, p. 82. 66. Georg Simmel, ‘The Concept and Tragedy of Culture’, in Simmel on Culture, ed. David Frisby and Mike Featherstone (London: Sage Publications, 1997), pp. 55–74. 67. Quoted in Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions, p. 128. 68. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, p. 336, p. 311. 69. Ibid., p. 428. 70. Ibid., p. 432, p. 435. 71. Hegel, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline, p. 53. 72. For further discussion of ‘fluidity’ and of the physiological as distinct from anatomical body as a model for knowledge in Schelling's work, see my ‘First Outline of a System of Theory’. 73. Schelling, Philosophical Investigations into the Nature of Human Freedom and Related Matters, p. 218. 74. Ibid., p. 274. 75. Jacques Derrida, Points… Interviews 1974–1994, ed. Elisabeth Weber, trans. Peggy Kamuf et al. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 83, p. 212. 76. Habermas, ‘Dialectical Idealism in Transition to Materialism: Schelling's Idea of a Contraction of God and its Consequences for a Philosophy of History’, in The New Schelling, ed. Judith Norman and Alistair Welchman. (New York: Continuum, 2004), pp. 43–89; Zizek, The indivisible remainder: an essay on Schelling and related matters (London: Verso, 1996). 77. Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage, 1973), p. 373. 78. I discuss Schelling's deployment of a proto-psychoanalysis further in ‘Spirit's Psychoanalysis: Natural History, The History of Nature, and Romantic Historiography’, European Romantic Review 14 (2003): 187–96; and ‘“The Abyss of the Past”: Psychoanalysis in Schelling's Ages of the World (1815)’, Romantic Praxis (forthcoming). 79. Schelling, ‘On the Nature of Philosophy as Science’ (1823), trans. Marcus Bullock, German Idealist Philosophy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1997), pp. 210–43. 80. Schelling, Philosophical Investigations into the Nature of Human Freedom and Related Matters, p. 228. 81. Schelling, ‘On the Nature of Philosophy as Science’, p. 213. 82. Ibid., p. 215. 83. Ibid. 84. See my Deconstruction and the Remainders of Phenomenology: Sartre, Derrida, Foucault, Baudrillard (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 190–98. 85. See also my ‘Derrida, Foucault, and the University’, Mosaic (forthcoming). 86. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), p. 3. 87. Derrida, ‘The University Without Condition’, p. 203. 88. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984). 89. Derrida, Eyes of the University, p. 167. 90. See my essay, ‘In the Wake of Cultural Studies: Globalization, Theory, and the University’, Diacritics 31.3 (2001), pp. 67–88. 91. David Simpson, The Academic Postmodern and the Rule of Literature: A Report on Half-Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). 92. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, trans. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 57–116. 93. See Vattimo's The Transparent Society. 94. Jochen Schulte-Sasse, ‘Mediality in Hegel: From Work to Text in The Phenomenology of Spirit’, in Idealism Without Absolutes: Philosophy and Romantic Culture, ed. Tilottama Rajan and Arkady Plotnitsky (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), pp. 72–92. 95. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans. Frederick G. Lawrence (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), p. 248. 96. Foucault, The Order of Things, p. 314. 97. Ibid., p. 387. 98. Derrida, Of Grammatology, p. 18. 99. Foucault, ‘Fantasia of the Library’, in Language, counter-memory, practice, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), pp. 91–92. 100. Foucault, The Order of Things, p. 247. 101. Foucault, ‘Fantasia’, pp. 87–8. 102. Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge and “The Discourse on Language” (1969, 1971), trans. A.M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), pp. 136–37. 103. Foucault, ‘The Discourse on Language’, in The Archeology of Knowledge and ‘The Discourse on Language’, p. 235.
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