A “New Institutional” Perspective on Women's Position in Architecture: Considering the Cases of Australia and Sweden
2012; Routledge; Volume: 17; Issue: 2-3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13264826.2012.751890
ISSN1755-0475
Autores Tópico(s)Gender Diversity and Inequality
ResumoAbstract Surprisingly little research on the position of women in architecture has attended to how the regulatory framing and governance of the architecture profession, through institutional and professional bodies, serves to construct and constrain professional identity in gendered ways.1 The authors would like to thank the two anonymous ATR referees for their generous and insightful comments. This paper emerges from the Australian Research Council Linkage project, Equity and Diversity in the Australian Architecture Profession: Women, Work, and Leadership (2011–14), within which the authors are investigators. The project has awebsite: Parlour: Women, Equity, Architecture, http://www.archipar lour.org/. This article attempts such an analysis, applying a "new institutional" approach to understanding the continuing under-representation of women in architecture. Focusing primarily on the Australian architecture profession, we draw a contrast with features of the profession in Sweden. Our focus is on the legal rational institutions that legitimise and consequently shape the profession, and we attempt to show how credentials and registration processes, along with professional associations, act as legitimising frames for professional practice. Notes The authors would like to thank the two anonymous ATR referees for their generous and insightful comments. This paper emerges from the Australian Research Council Linkage project, Equity and Diversity in the Australian Architecture Profession: Women, Work, and Leadership (2011–14), within which the authors are investigators. The project has awebsite: Parlour: Women, Equity, Architecture, http://www.archipar lour.org/. Paula Whitman, Going Places: The Career Progression of Women in the Architectural Profession, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology and the Royal Australian Institute of Architects, 2005, 6; Architects' Council of Europe, European Survey of the Architectural Profession 2008, 2, http://www.ace-cae.eu/public/con tents/index/category_id/228 (accessed 24 July 2012). Australian Institute of Architects, "Architects in Australia: A Snapshot from the 2006 Census", 2007, 4. Australian Institute of Architects, "Architects in Australia", 4. Whitman, Going Places, 10. The Law Society of New South Wales, Thought Leadership 2011—Advancement of Women in the Profession, 2011, 8. A. Kaspura, Engineering Profession—A Statistical Overview, 8th edn, Barton, ACT: Institute of Engineers Australia, 2012, 25, http://www.engineersaustralia.org. au/sites/default/files/shado/Representation/Stats/statis tical_overview_2012_1.pdf (accessed 26 November 2012). 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In Australia, the idea of architects as members of the state nobility is perhaps most dramatically represented in the position of Government Architect, of which there are currently six, covering most ofthe Australian states, with one position vacant (Tasmania) and another recently abolished (NT). The Australian Institute of Architects has a policy on the role of Government Architects, even going so far as to recommend that there be a Commonwealth position, "within the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, allowing access to key Ministers and advisers, enabling a key contact across all Departments, and offering a 'whole' of Government approach": The Australian Institute of Architects, Government Architect Policy, 2008, 4, www.architecture.com.au/policy/media/Government %20Policy.pdf (accessed 28 October 2012). Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents"; A. Pinnington and T. 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Jepperson, "Institutions, Institutional Effects,and Institutionalism", in Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio (eds), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991, 143. Jepperson, "Institutions, Institutional Effects, and Institutionalism", 145. James March and Johan Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors inPolitical Life", American Political Science Review, 78, no. 3 (September 1984), 734–749. March and Olsen, "The New Institutionalism", 734. Mona L. Krook and Fiona Mackay, Gender, Politics and Institutions: Towards a Feminist Institutionalism, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. On the play of power in and through architecture, see Kim Dovey, Framing Places: Mediating Power in Built Form, London and New York: Routledge, 1999. Linda S. Kauffman (ed.), Feminism and Institutions: Dialogues on Feminist Theory, Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1989; Krook and Mackay, Gender, Politics and Institutions. Krook and Mackay, Gender, Politics and Institutions, 5. Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, "Introduction", in Powell and DiMaggio (eds), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, 1–38. Lynne G. Zucker, "Institutional Theories of Organization", Annual Review of Sociology, 13, (1987), 443–464, 5; Powell and DiMaggio, "Introduction", 12. Rosemary Crompton 'Gender, Status and Professionalism", Sociology, 21, no. 3 (August 1987), 413–428; J. Joan Acker, "Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations", Gender and Society, 4, no. 2, (June 1990), 139–158; Cynthia Cockborn, Brothers: Male Dominance and Technological Change, London: Pluto Press, 1991. Dana Cuff, Architecture: The Story of Practice, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991; Garry Stevens, The Favored Circle: The Social Foundations of Architectural Distinction, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998; Andrew Saint, The Image of the Architect, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983. See also J. Judith Blau, Architects and Firms: A Sociological Perspective on Architectural Practice, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984. The many feminist architectural texts that have resonances with a neo-institutional approach are too numerous to mention here, but include Francesca Hughes (ed.), The Architect: Reconstructing her Practice, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996; Jane Rendell, Barbara Penner and Iain Borden (eds), Gender Space Architecture: An Interdisciplinary Introduction, London and New York: Routledge, 2000; Hilde Heynen and Gülsüm Baydar (eds), Negotiating Domesticity: Spatial Productions of Gender in Modern Architecture, London and New York: Routledge, 2005. Patricia H. Thornton, Candace Jones and Kenneth Kury, "Institutional Logics and Institutional Change in Organizations: Transformation in Accounting, Architecture, and Publishing", Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 23, (2005), 125–170, 126. Thornton, Jones and Kury, "Institutional Logics and Institutional Change in Organizations", 141. See, for example, Christine Battersby, Gender and Genius: Towards a Feminist Aesthetics, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989. See Tim Anstey, Katja Grillner, Rolf Hughes (eds), Architecture and Authorship, London: Black Dog, 2007. Ann Forsyth, "In Praise of Zaha: Women, Partnership, and the Star System in Architecture", JAE: The Journal of Architectural Education, 60, no. 2 (November 2006), 63–65. Per Lander demonstrates that men dominate the recipients of architectural awards in Sweden, noting ironically: "If you are a woman and want to win any [Swedish] architecture prizes you should enter in the categories of interior architecture or furniture design": Lander, "The Women are More Numerous but Men Reign [Kvinnorna är Flest men Männen Regerar]", 19. Thornton, Jones and Kury, "Institutional Logics and Institutional Change in Organizations", 148. Thornton, Jones and Kury, "Institutional Logics and Institutional Change in Organizations", 148. Powell and DiMaggio, "Introduction", 70. Margali Larsen, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977. Julia Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism: Past, Present and Future", Comparative Sociology, 10, no. 1 (2011), 1–37, 37. Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism", 14. Mirko Noordegraaf, "Remaking Professionals? How Associations and Professional Education Connect Professionalism and Organizations", Current Sociology, 59, no. 4 (2011), 465–488. Noordegraaf, "Remaking Professionals?", 467. Daniel Muzio, Ian Kirkpatrick and Matthias Kipping, "Professions, Organizations and the State: Applying the Sociology of the Professions tothe Case of Management Consultancy", Current Sociology, 59, no. 6 (2011), 805–824. Noordegraaf, "Remaking Professionals?", 470. Eliot Freidson, Professions Reborn: Theory, Prophecy and Policy, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994; Peter Thomas and Jan Hewitt, "Managerial Organization and Professional Autonomy: A Discourse-Based Conceptualization", Organization Studies, 32, no. 10 (2011) 1373–1393. Larsen, The Rise of Professionalism. Powell and DiMaggio, "Introduction", 53. W. Richard Scott, "Lords of the Dance: Professionals as Institutional Agents", Organization Studies, 29, no. 2 (2008), 219–238. Scott, "Lords of the Dance", 222. See, for instance, Harry Francis Mallgrave and David Goodman, An Introduction toArchitectural Theory: 1968 to the Present, Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011; C. Greig Crysler, Stephen Cairns and Hilde Heynen (eds), The Sage Handbook of Architectural Theory, Los Angeles and London: Sage, 2012. Cordula Rau (ed.), Why Do Architects Wear Black? Vienna: Springer, 2009. Jonathan Hopkin, "The Comparative Method", in David Marsh and Gerry Stoker (eds), Theory and Methods in Political Science, 3rd edn, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan; 2010, 285–307. On average, Australian women working full time earn 17.4 per cent less than Australian men working full time. The overall percentage of female managers in all reporting organisations was 33.8 per cent: EOWA, 2012, hppt//www.eowa.gov.au (accessed 15 October 2012). Maureen Baker, Families Labour and Love—Family Diversity in a Changing World, Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen and Unwin, 2001. Key Acts include the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Commonwealth) and Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Act 1999 (Commonwealth). Susan Ainsworth and Leanne Cutcher, "Expectant Mothers and Absent Fathers: Paid Maternity Leave in Australia", Gender Work and Organization, 15, no. 4 (2008), 375–393; If eligible, Australian women are entitled to 18 weeks' government-funded paid parental leave and 12 months' non-paid leave. Eligible "dads and partners" can have up to two weeks' government-funded pay: Department of Human Services, Parental Leave Pay, http://www. humanservices. gov.au/customer/services/centrelink/parental-leave-pay (accessed 28 September 2012). Richard Layard, Stephen Nickell and Richard Jackman, Unemployment—Macroeconomic Performance and the Labour Market, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991; Rudolf Meidner, "The Potential of Active Labour Market Policy—Swedish Experience", ILO Conference: Towards Labour Market Flexibility and Employment in USSR, Moscow, 1–4 October 1990. Elizabeth Jelin, "Gender and the Family in Public Policy: A Comparative View of Argentina and Sweden", in Naila Kabeer, Agneta Stark and Edda Magnus (eds), Global Perspectives on Gender Equality: Reversing the Gaze, New York: Routledge, 2007, 51. Jelin, "Gender and the Family in Public Policy", 55; see Gosta Esping-Anersen, Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990. Government of Sweden, 2012, http://www.sweden. se/eng/Home/Quick-facts/ (accessed 22 July 2012). Department of Human Services, Parental Leave Pay, http://www.humanservices.gov.au/customer/services/centrelink/parental-leave-pay (accessed 28 September 2012). Statistics Sweden, Women and Men in Sweden—Facts and Figures 2012; Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency (EOWA), Gender Pay Gap Statistics, August 2012, http://www.eowa.gov.au/In formation_Centres/Resou rce_Centre/Statistics/2012 -08-17_Gender_Pay_Gap _factsheet.pdf (accessed 15 September 2012). Whitman, Going Places; Ann de-Graft-Johnson, Sandra Manly and Clara Greed, Why do Women Leave Architecture, Royal Institute of British Architects, 2003; Anna Ingebrigtsen, Tea and Topics ofTransgression—On Architects and Gender, Stockholm, Sweden: KTH, 2012, http://www.kth.se/polopo ly_fs/1.338305!/Menu/gen eral/column-content/attac hment/1000-1004.pdf (accessed 14 September 2012). Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism", 4. Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism", 1–7. For example, Crompton, "Gender, Status and Professionalism"; Rosemary Crompton and Kay Sanderson, Gendered Jobs and Social Change, London: Unwin Hyman, 1989; Keith M. Macdonald, The Sociology of the Professions, London: Sage, 1995; Witz, Professions and Patriarchy; David Knights and Hugh Willmott, Gender and the Labour Process, Aldershott: Gower Publishing Co., 1986. See, for example, in the fields of healthcare, Susan A. Nancarrow and Alan M. Borthwick, "Dynamic Professional Boundaries in the Healthcare Workforce", Sociology of Health & Illness, 27, no. 7 (2005), 897–919. Witz, Professions and Patriarchy, 64. Julia Evetts, citing Michael Burrage, "Introduction: The Professions in Sociology and History", in Michael C. Burrage and Rolf Torstendahl (eds) The Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions, London: Sage, 1990. Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism", 14. Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism", 14. Sveriges Arkitekter/Swedish Association of Architects, Information brochure in English, http://www.arkitekt.se/s57576/f1 1211 (accessed 18 April 2012). Evetts, "Sociological Analysis of Professionalism", 6. Larsen, The Rise of Professionalism. Eliot Freidson, Professional Powers: A Study of the Institutionalisation of Formal Knowledge, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986; Witz, Professions and Patriarchy. Jacob C. 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At the time of writing, the AACA is also developing and moving towards a single national registration system, as recommended by the Australian Government Productivity Commission in the 2010 Annual Review of Regulatory Burdens on Business: Business and Consumer Services; Website of the Architects Accreditation Council of Australia (AACA), http://www.aaca.org.au/ (accessed 12 October 2012); Australian Government Productivity Commission, Annual Review of Regulatory Burdens on Business: Business and Consumer Services, 12 October 2010, http://www.pc.gov.au/projects/study/regulatory-burdens/business-consumer- services/report (accessed 12 October 2012). This accreditation process is known as the Australian and New Zealand Architecture Program Accreditation Procedure (APAP). It is described on the website of the Australian Institute of Architects, http://www.architecture. com.au/i-cms?page=1.132 62.13312.649 (accessed 12 October 2012). Productivity Commission. Review of Legislation Regulating the Architectural Profession, Report no. 13, 2000, Canberra: AusInfo, http://www. pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_ file/0019/22744/architects. pdf (accessed 26 November 2012), 87. Website of Architects Accreditation Council of Australia (AACA), http://www. aaca.org.au/ (accessed 12 October 2012). Shannon, "Architecture and Equity: Education and Practice". Noordegraaf, "Remaking Professionals?", 467. Royston Greenwood, Roy Suddaby and C. R. Hinings, "Theorizing Change: The Role of Professional Associations in the Transformation of Institutional Fields", Academy of Management Journal, 45, no. 1 (2002), 58–80, 61–62. Freidson, Professions Reborn; Witz, Professions and Patriarchy. Gillian Matthewson, "The Numbers So Far", Parlour: Women, Equity, Architecture, 15 March 2012, http://www. archiparlour.org/the-numbers- so-far/ (accessed 22 October 2012). Australian Institute of Architects, http://www.archi tecture.com.au/i-cms?page =165 (accessed 14 October 2012). The development of a draft policy on gender equity for the Australian Institute of Architects, at the national level, will be one of the major outcomes of the ARC Linkage Project, Equity and Diversity in the Australian Architecture Profession: Women, Work, and Leadership (2011–14), within which the authors are investigators. Gillian Matthewson's are the most current Australian figures. Matthewson is undertaking a PhD as part of the ARC Linkage project, Equity and Diversity in the Australian Architecture Profession: Women, Work, and Leadership (2011–14), and her figures are based partly on the Australian Institute of Architects, "Architecture Schools of Australasia 2011", Barton, ACT: Australian Institute of Architects, National Office, 2011. See Matthewson, "The Numbers So Far". The 2004 figures are cited in Whitman, Going Places, 31. Matthewson, "The Numbers So Far". Matthewson, "The Numbers So Far". Australian Institute of Architects, "Architects in Australia". Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 105. Scott, "Lords of the Dance", 222. Noordegraaf, "Remaking Professionals?", 470.
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