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Toe and flow: Essential components and structure of the amputation prevention team

2010; Elsevier BV; Volume: 52; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1016/j.jvs.2010.06.004

1097-6809

Lee C. Rogers, George Andros, Joseph Caporusso, Lawrence B. Harkless, Joseph L. Mills, David G. Armstrong,

Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Management

At the end of an anatomic peninsula, the foot in diabetes is prone to acute and chronic complications involving neuropathy, vasculopathy, and infection. Effective management requires an interdisciplinary effort focusing on this triad. In this article, we describe the key factors leading to foot complications and the critical skill sets required to assemble a team to care for them. Although specific attention is given to a conjoined model involving podiatry and vascular surgery, the “toe and flow” model, we further outline three separate models of care—basic, intermediate, and center of excellence—that can be implemented in the developed and developing world. At the end of an anatomic peninsula, the foot in diabetes is prone to acute and chronic complications involving neuropathy, vasculopathy, and infection. Effective management requires an interdisciplinary effort focusing on this triad. In this article, we describe the key factors leading to foot complications and the critical skill sets required to assemble a team to care for them. Although specific attention is given to a conjoined model involving podiatry and vascular surgery, the “toe and flow” model, we further outline three separate models of care—basic, intermediate, and center of excellence—that can be implemented in the developed and developing world. Current estimates place the worldwide prevalence of diabetes at 300 million, a sobering statistic, which by 2030 is predicted to increase dramatically to 425 million.1International Diabetes FederationPress release: latest diabetes figures pain grim global picture.Oct 19, 2009Google Scholar In the United States (U.S.) alone, there are an estimated 23.6 million people with diabetes.2Centers for Disease Control and PreventionNational diabetes fact sheet.http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2007.pdfDate: 2007Google Scholar Lower extremity amputation is an unfortunate and often an avoidable sequela of complicated diabetes. Foot ulceration due to neuropathy and repetitive trauma, often complicated by infection and ischemia, is the primary underlying pathway to amputation; such ulcers develop in up to 25% of those with diabetes over their lifetime.3Singh N. Armstrong D.G. Lipsky B.A. Preventing foot ulcers in patients with diabetes.JAMA. 2005; 293: 217-228Crossref PubMed Scopus (1999) Google Scholar The annual incidence of diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is 1% to 2%.4Ramsey S.D. Newton K. Blough D. McCulloch D.K. Sandhu N. Reiber G.E. et al.Incidence, outcomes, and cost of foot ulcers in patients with diabetes.Diabetes Care. 1999; 22: 382-387Crossref PubMed Scopus (842) Google Scholar Eighty-five percent of amputations are preceded by a foot ulcer,5Pecoraro R.E. Reiber G.E. Burgess E.M. Pathways to diabetic limb amputation: basis for prevention.Diabetes Care. 1990; 13: 513-521Crossref PubMed Scopus (1233) Google Scholar which creates a portal of entry for microorganisms and leads to infection. Host resolution of an extremity infection is impaired in diabetes due to immunopathy and peripheral arterial disease (PAD). PAD, like other more central macrovascular diseases, is common in diabetes. PAD can lead to critical limb ischemia, either alone or when combined with an injury like a foot ulcer. The DFU requires adequate circulation to heal; if the circulation is impaired such that tissue oxygen demand exceeds supply, critical limb ischemia ensues, placing the limb at risk. Foot ulcers and amputations cost the U.S. health care system an estimated $29 billion in 2007.6Rogers L.C. Lavery L.A. Armstrong D.G. The right to bear legs—An amendment to healthcare; how preventing amputations can save billions to the US health-care system.J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2008; 98: 166-168PubMed Google Scholar After amputation, the costs do not cease. Multiple prosthetics and mobility devices are often required. Disability is common after amputation, removing the patient from the workforce and causing additional economic burdens. Not only are productivity and quality of life diminished but also life expectancy is reduced after major lower extremity amputation.7Armstrong D.G. Wrobel J. Robbins J.M. Guest editorial: are diabetes-related wounds and amputations worse than cancer?.Int Wound J. 2007; 4: 286-287Crossref PubMed Scopus (302) Google Scholar Effective amputation prevention strategies require an understanding of the natural history of amputation in diabetes. Fig 1 presents the common pathway to lower extremity amputation in diabetes as steps in the “stairway to amputation.” The most common pathway is the development of peripheral sensory neuropathy that leads to unfelt repetitive trauma. This trauma causes a foot ulcer that pierces the protective dermal envelope. If there is underlying significant PAD, the wound will not predictably heal in the presence of critical limb ischemia. The longer an ulcer remains open and unhealed, the more likely it is to become infected. Infection is often the coup de grace leading to an amputation.8Prompers L. Schaper N. Apelqvist J. Edmonds M. Jude E. Mauricio D. et al.Prediction of outcome in individuals with diabetic foot ulcers: focus on the differences between individuals with and without peripheral arterial disease The EURODIALE Study.Diabetologia. 2008; 51: 747-755Crossref PubMed Scopus (632) Google Scholar A team of dedicated specialists is required to prevent lower extremity amputation in persons with diabetes, because it would be exceedingly rare to find one practitioner capable of managing all aspects of care for the complicated diabetic foot. Individual team members should focus on one or more of the “steps” in the pathway to amputation, but certainly, screening and prevention, wound healing, infection management, and revascularization are paramount. The Diabetic Rapid Response Acute Foot Team (DRRAFT) guidelines9Fitzgerald R.H. Mills J.L. Joseph W. Armstrong D.G. The diabetic rapid response acute foot team: 7 essential skills for targeted limb salvage.Eplasty. 2009; 9: e15PubMed Google Scholar suggest that the vascular surgeon and diabetic podiatrist constitute the “irreducible minimum” in the formation of a diabetic foot team, with the frequent inclusion of additional specialists as available and necessary (Fig 2). Ideally, a center dedicated to amputation prevention would be located within a medical center, given the complex nature of the problem, frequently requiring advanced diagnostic studies, coordinated inpatient services, and a broad array of surgical therapy. The center must be able to rapidly diagnose and treat infection, both in the inpatient and the outpatient setting. Radiologic capabilities for investigation of deformities and osteomyelitis by conventional radiography, bone scan, and magnetic resonance imaging must be readily available. A noninvasive vascular laboratory containing suitable equipment for the diagnosis and quantification of PAD are additional requirements. Outpatient facilities must have the capability to perform wound débridements, dispense and modify off-loading devices, and apply negative pressure wound therapy dressings. Twenty-four-hour operating room access is imperative to be able to surgically treat limb- and life-threatening infections through incision and drainage or emergent partial amputation. The podiatrist should have specific expertise in diabetic foot care and wound healing. The podiatrist's role may be that of the “gate keeper” to the diabetic foot team, because the foot ulcer is often the entry diagnosis. A simple foot ulcer is often a manifestation of a much larger underlying nexus of problems whose complete management crosses multiple disciplines. The podiatrist's primary duty is to evaluate the foot ulcer, exclude or treat foot infections, rule out PAD or refer to vascular surgery, and create a comprehensive wound-healing plan that uses the other members of the team. Podiatric surgeons include foot surgery in the treatment plan, when necessary, to heal a wound or prevent its recurrence. The podiatrist has particular expertise in biomechanics and pressure off-loading unique to the profession. The podiatrist also performs a critical role in identification and management of diabetic patients at highest risk for ulceration. Prevention clinics are a key component of comprehensive diabetic foot care. The vascular surgeon is vital to the team because significant PAD that may cause or contribute to ulceration and failure of healing is present in at least one-third of patients with DFU. Fellowship-trained vascular surgeons who are complete vascular specialists capable of risk factor management, performing, and interpreting noninvasive vascular studies, diagnostic angiography, distal bypass and endovascular interventions, including conventional angioplasty with or without stent placement, subintimal angioplasty, and tibial angioplasty, are necessary. Vascular surgeons are also thoroughly trained in the assessment and management of complex limb and foot infections and the treatment of sepsis. In addition to débridement and drainage of complex infections, vascular surgeons also perform toe, forefoot, guillotine, and major limb amputations when required. The infections disease specialist should be up to date on current guidelines for treating diabetic foot infections. Infections in diabetic feet are limb- and occasionally life-threatening. Culture-specific, patient-appropriate antibiotics are required, but salvaging the limb is most delicate during the days before culture and sensitivity results are reported, requiring appropriate empiric therapy that may include therapy for potentially drug-resistant organisms in frequently medically compromised patients.10Lipsky B.A. A report from the international consensus on diagnosing and treating the infected diabetic foot.Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2004; 20: S68-S77Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar The orthopedic surgeon may be needed to perform lower extremity amputation in cases of treatment failure. In international settings or in U.S. settings where podiatrists are unavailable, a foot and ankle fellowship-trained orthopedic surgeon with particular interest in the diabetic foot can be valuable and perform deformity correction. Additionally, in the U.S., there are a number of centers where the foot-and-ankle-trained orthopedist plays a central role. Plastic surgeons offer the team the option of covering large soft-tissue defects with free flaps or skin grafting. Some teams use plastic surgeons as their “gate keeper” to the diabetic foot team. The diabetologist is necessary for adequate control of plasma glucose during, what is many times, a hospital stay with surgical intervention. Perioperative hyperglycemia is associated with an increased risk of postoperative infection. Patients with diabetic complications require a review of their compliance and outpatient diabetes care plan. Diabetologists provide comprehensive and long-term management of the underlying metabolic condition. In many centers in Europe, diabetologists lead the diabetic foot care team. General surgeons are well versed in the management of acute wounds but should have specific expertise in chronic wound healing if they are to play a role in the amputation prevention program. The general surgeon is able to perform routine wound débridements and high-level amputations, if needed. The pedorthist is valuable in fabricating or modifying footwear to heal an ulcer or prevent its recurrence. Centers have varying relationships with pedorthists, depending on facility and local and national regulations. Pedorthists are sometimes employed by facilities, but more often are independent contractors operating inside the facility. This is frequently a better approach than referring patients off-site, because essential communication is improved if the prosthetist is immediately available for consultation in clinic and at the bedside. Other invaluable nonphysician team members may include the certified wound and ostomy nurse, diabetes specialty/registered nurse, licensed practical nurse, medical assistant, diabetes educator, nutritionist, and physical/occupational therapist. The traditional American model for care of the diabetic foot involves both primary care physicians and podiatrists in their private offices and hospital-based or outpatient wound care centers. The private office physician relies on previous referral networks for specialized care. The wound care center model involves a panel of doctors of different specialties seeing patients in the same center, however, not often at the same time.11Steed D.L. Edington H. Moosa H.H. Webster M.W. Organization and development of a university multidisciplinary wound care clinic.Surgery. 1993; 114 (discussion 778-9): 775-778PubMed Google Scholar The wound center model is not infrequently found to be lacking because there is often only a loose relationship between panel physicians. Although imperfect, improvements to these processes have been reported.12Sholar A.D. Wong L.K. Culpepper J.W. Sargent L.A. The specialized wound care center: a 7-year experience at a tertiary care hospital.Ann Plast Surg. 2007; 58: 279-284Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar Researchers have shown reductions in major limb amputations in the United States in Veterans Administration hospitals when using referral-based protocols13Wrobel J.S. Robbins J.M. Charns M.P. Bonacker K.M. Reiber G.E. Pogach L. Diabetes-related foot care at 10 Veterans Affairs medical centers: must do's associated with successful microsystems.Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf. 2006; 32: 206-213PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar and in military hospitals with the founding of a “limb preservation team.”14Driver V.R. Madsen J. Goodman R.A. Reducing amputation rates in patients with diabetes at a military medical center: the limb preservation service model.Diabetes Care. 2005; 28: 248-253Crossref PubMed Scopus (111) Google Scholar A single-center county hospital in the U.S. reduced major amputations by 72% after implementing a care process centered on podiatry and vascular services.15Rogers L.C. Bevilacqua N.J. Organized programs reduce lower extremity amputations.J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2010; 100: 101-104PubMed Google Scholar The “toe and flow” model, consisting of podiatric and vascular surgery, appears to be a uniquely synergistic one, with overlapping yet complementary skill sets at the core of care (Table I).Table I“Toe and flow” model: Complementary distribution of patient responsibilitiesToe (podiatry)Flow (vascular surgery)Screening and preventionGait analysis/biomechanical interventionPressure reduction/off-loading/footwearVascular assessment and revascularizationSurgical débridement/drainage of complex infectionSurgical débridement/drainage of complex infectionPostoperative monitoring of the high-risk footPostoperative monitoring of the high-risk footLong-term monitoring of vascular reconstructionProphylactic/curative reconstructive surgeryMedical management of peripheral vascular diseaseWound careWound care Open table in a new tab The developing international response to amputation prevention in patients with diabetes is worthy of discussion. In the traditional European and Asian models for diabetic foot care, the diabetologist usually serves as the gatekeeper, coordinating care and referring to specialists in infectious disease, orthopedic surgery, and vascular surgery as necessary. More specific reports from the continent reveal improvements in outcomes when closer working relationships between specialists are facilitated:•The implementation of multidisciplinary teams that include podiatrists has reduced amputations by 34% nationwide in The Netherlands.16Van Houtum W.H. Rauwerda J.A. Ruwaard D. Schaper N.C. Bakker K. Reduction in diabetes-related lower-extremity amputations in the Netherlands: 1991-2000.Diabetes Care. 2004; 27: 1042-1046Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar•In Finland, there have been reductions in major amputations after more frequent inclusion of vascular surgeons on the team, an outcome that has been attributed to an increase in distal bypass procedures.17Eskelinen E. Eskelinen A. Alback A. Lepantalo M. Major amputation incidence decreases both in non-diabetic and in diabetic patients in Helsinki.Scand J Surg. 2006; 95: 185-189PubMed Google Scholar•Reports from Italy demonstrate that rates of hospitalization and major limb amputation are both reduced by the implementation of a multidisciplinary care referral system for high-risk diabetic feet.18Anichini R. Zecchini F. Cerretini I. et al.Improvement of diabetic foot care after the Implementation of the International Consensus on the Diabetic Foot (ICDF): results of a 5-year prospective study.Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007; 75: 153-158Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar•A prospective study in Lithuania reported fewer reulcerations in DFU patients after the institution of multidisciplinary DF care teams.19Dargis V. Pantelejeva O. Jonushaite A. Vileikyte L. Boulton A.J. Benefits of a multidisciplinary approach in the management of recurrent diabetic foot ulceration in Lithuania: a prospective study.Diabetes Care. 1999; 22: 1428-1431Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar•DF teams covering various primary care trusts within the United Kingdom have shown sustained reduction in amputations with the introduction of more organized diabetic foot care with multidisciplinary care pathways.20Edmonds M.E. Blundell M.P. Morns M.E. Thomas E.M. Cotton L.T. Watkins P.J. Improved survival of the diabetic foot: the role of a specialized foot clinic.Q J Med. 1986; 60: 763-771PubMed Google Scholar, 21Canavan R.J. Unwin N.C. Kelly W.F. Connolly V.M. Diabetes and non-diabetes related lower extremity amputation incidence before and after the introduction of better organized diabetes foot care: continuous longitudinal monitoring using a standard method.Diabetes Care. 2008; 31: 459-463Crossref PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar•Other reports from Asia strongly indicate that teamwork22Aksoy D.Y. Gurlek A. Cetinkaya Y. et al.Change in the amputation profile in diabetic foot in a tertiary reference center: efficacy of team working.Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2004; 112: 526-530Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar and consistent application of diabetic foot protocols23Rerkasem K. Kosachunhanun N. Tongprasert S. Khwanngern K. Matanasarawoot A. Thongchai C. et al.Reducing lower extremity amputations due to diabetes: the application of diabetic-foot protocol in Chiang Mai University Hospital.Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2008; 7: 88-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar reduce amputation rates.•Team-directed foot care education has reduced amputation rates in India.24Viswanathan V. Madhavan S. Rajasekar S. Chamukuttan S. Ambady R. Amputation prevention initiative in South India: positive impact of foot care education.Diabetes Care. 2005; 28: 1019-1021Crossref PubMed Scopus (54) Google Scholar•Progress has been reported from Australia after guidelines were developed to address the increasing incidence of foot ulcers and amputations.25Campbell L.V. Graham A.R. Kidd R.M. Molloy H.F. O'Rourke S.R. Colagiuri S. The lower limb in people with diabetes Position statement of the Australian Diabetes Society.Med J Aust. 2000; 173: 369-372PubMed Google Scholar Although individual teams, including many described above, are constructed based on specific conditions within a community or region, they generally fall into one of three basic categories: basic, intermediate, and center of excellence care models.26International Consensus on the Diabetic FootInternational Working Group on the Diabetic Foot.http://www.iwgdf.org/concensus/supplements.htmDate: 1999Google Scholar, 27Bakker K. Setting Up a Diabetic Foot Center: The Critical Ingredients Vary Worldwide International Diabetic Foot Conference (DFCon) 2010.http://dfcon.com/presentations.htmlGoogle Scholar The goal of this model of care is to provide a local community with preventive and basic curative diabetic foot care (Table II, A). The setting is often a private office or small health center, with a general practitioner or podiatrist at the center of care. One of the key elements of this model is to develop and maintain close collaborations with second- and third-tier referral centers.Table IIThree clinical levels of diabetic foot care: (A) basic, (B) intermediate, and (C) centers of excellence27Bakker K. Setting Up a Diabetic Foot Center: The Critical Ingredients Vary Worldwide International Diabetic Foot Conference (DFCon) 2010.http://dfcon.com/presentations.htmlGoogle ScholarA, Basic model of care AimPrevention and basic curative care PatientsOwn population SettingGeneral practitioners' office, health center, or small regional hospital Potential clinicians• General practitioner• Podiatrist• Diabetic nurse Facilitating elementsClose collaboration with a referral centerB, Intermediate model AimPrevention and curative care for all types of patients; more advanced assessment and diagnosis PatientsFrom the regional catchment area of the hospital, possibly with additional referrals from outside the region SettingHospital Potential clinicians• Diabetologist• Vascular surgeon• Podiatrist• Diabetic nurse Facilitating elements• Motivated coordinator to inspire team• Exchange of experience with other centers• Staff meetings to discuss diabetic foot patients• Active collaboration with other departments within the hospital• Active collaboration with extramural facilities (general practitioners, nursing homes, etc)C, Center of excellence Aims• Prevention and specialized curative care for complex cases• To advance the knowledge base and to teach other centers PatientsNational, regional, or even international referral center Potential clinicians• Diabetologist• Vascular surgeon• Podiatrist• Orthopedist• Orthotist• Educator• Plaster technician• Rehabilitation specialist• Diabetic nurse• Psychiatrist SettingUsually a large teaching or university hospital Facilitating elements• Organize regional, national, or international meetings• Allow providers to visit to improve knowledge and practical skills• Active collaboration with other reference centers• Active participation in the development of guidelines Open table in a new tab The goal of this hospital-based program is to provide preventive and curative care for all types of patients (Table II, B). In addition, it may be equipped to deliver more advanced assessment and diagnosis than the basic model. The patient population is drawn from a larger catchment area than the basic model, with possible referrals from greater distances based on its relationship with basic diabetic foot care centers. More clinicians are involved in care, frequently adding in diabetes specialists and vascular surgeons to the mix. Administratively, it is essential that this model has a motivated coordinator to serve as leader, inspiring teamwork and frequent interdisciplinary interaction. This hospital-based model of care aims to provide preventive and specialized curative care for complex cases and to serve as a model to teach and disseminate information widely (Table II, C). Its catchment area is frequently regional, national, or even international. These centers are typically located within teaching hospitals and may include a number of other specialists to assist in management of commensurately more complex cases. These programs are frequently organizers of regional, national, or international meetings and host and train visitors from basic and intermediate care foot clinics. The most common pathway leading to amputation in the person with diabetes begins with a simple neuropathic foot ulcer, frequently complicated by infection and ischemia due to PAD. The ideal care team should include specialists with expertise in these disciplines to be most effective. With the possible exception of the basic diabetic foot care center, the podiatrist and the vascular surgeon (“toe and flow” concept) are uniquely suited to clinically partner in the establishment of comprehensive programs aiming to prevent limb loss. Reports have shown reductions in major amputations and foot complications with multidisciplinary cooperation, suggesting that it is better communication and organization in concert with significant enthusiasm that makes the difference.