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The contribution of Hollywood to the birth of a Romanian sound film industry

2011; Routledge; Volume: 31; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/01439685.2011.597993

1465-3451

Barbara A. Nelson,

Balkans: History, Politics, Society

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Stoil, Michael J. Balkan Cinema: evolution after the revolution (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1993), 17 and 19. Two other critics who write about Europe at the margins—including the Balkans—are Dina Iordanova and Rosalind Galt. Romania is outside, even the ‘other Europe’ of Iordanova's Cinema of the Other Europe (London, 2003); however, it is included in her previous The Cinema of Flames: Balkan film, culture and the media (London, 2001). The chapter on Romania, however, is directed toward the way the past has influenced Romania's image in film/media in the 1990s. And while Galt's The New European Cinema (2006) discusses film in Yugoslavia, it does not include cinema in Romania. 2. Both points are included in a previous article: Hollywood's struggle for Romania 1938–1945, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 29(3) (September 2009), 295–319. This number is based on an examination of the film listings in this issue and others for early 1938. Ioana Parvulescue, Intoarcere in Bucurestiul Interbelic (Bucharest, 2003), 135. 3. Stoil, 19. He indicates that the Romanian-language market being the largest in the region ‘ensured the best return on investment in sound film production.’ 4. The anthology as a whole, however, has a variety of perspectives. Moller is a researcher at the Department of Film and Media Studies at the University of Copenhagen. This study documents the close relationship that existed in the United States between political institutions—the regulators of trade—and the film industry, a relationship which varied significantly from that found in France. Previous studies, as Moller indicates, did not consider the market impact of laws of competitiveness; among these is the Webb–Pomerene export trade law (1918). His book uses new sources, chiefly, the archives of the Motion Picture Distributors of America (MPPDA). The investigation concludes that despite Hollywood's desire to have ‘the world believe that its success in exports is quality based …,’ the truth is more nearly that ‘the dominance of American films has very little to do with aesthetics and consumer preference and a great deal to do with politics and greed’ (xvi–xvii). Others who have written on the general theme include Kristen Thompson and Douglas Gomery. 5. Theorizing ‘Third World’ film spectatorship, in Anthony R. Guneratne and Wimal Dissanayake (eds), Rethinking Third Cinema (New York, 2003), 183–205. This American-Iranian critic argues that labels of imperialism often obscure the more complex relationships that exist between Hollywood and the film cultures of certain countries. Andrew Higson and Richard Maltby's anthology also includes diverse views on Hollywood's impact on Europe, varying from country to country and depending on the specific group targeted for discussion. 6. Hitchens, Keith, Rumania 1866–1947 (Oxford, 1994), 371–376 and 416–425. Romania also prided itself on having the only two-consecutive-term president of the League of Nations, Nicolae Titlescu (1930 and 1931). 7. Iordanova, The Cinema of Flames and Before the Rain in a Balkan Context, Rethinking History 4(2) (July 2000), 147–156. See also Marian Tutui, Orient Express: Filmul Romanesc si Filmul Balcanic (Bucharest, 2008). 8. D. I. Suchianu who was Romanian Under Secretary of State for the Ministry of Propaganda in 1938 and a well-known cultural critic commented on this issue. See Ioana Parvulescu's Intoarcere in Bucurestiul Interbelic (Bucharest, 2003), 135. 9. See Cinema, March 27, 1936, 10. 10. Cinema was launched in 1924 and was still in existence under Ceausescu. In contrast, Curierul Filmului was a bimonthly paper launched in 1933 and terminated April 18, 1940. Anthony Slide claims the fan magazine has long been thought of as a ‘uniquely American genre’, Inside the Hollywood Fan Magazine (Jackson, Mississippi, 2010). Cinema differed from fan magazines in the US in that it ran ads for large, expensive cinema equipment and contained sophisticated discussions of cultural and technological concerns, in addition to news about stars. 11. Dimineata, January 13, 1934, 10. There were several crossover supporters, for example, Joseph de Saxa. Joseph de Saxa was the head of Voiaj, the first publication about tourism in Romania (Curierul Filmului September 15, 1933, 4). He compiled, together with Golea, annual catalogues of films screened in Romania (Curierul Filmuluii, Festival Issue, 1934) and was author of Cartea cu Pacate (advertised widely in Cinema). And articles for Curierul Filmului. See Curierul Filmului, Pasti [Easter] Issue, 1935, 1, in which he describes the benefits of cinema in the field of medicine, arguing also for its link to education, in general). 12. Curierul Filmului September 15, 1933, last page, and Curierul Filmului October 1, 1933, last two pages (full-page) carried advertisements for The Phantom Train (Trenul Fantoma). The same issue announced three other Romanian films by J.Mihail, one a French collaboration (Prima Dragoste) and two others Czechian, produced in Barandov studios (Suflete in Furtuna and Numai of Fetita). These were distributed by Standard-film in Arad through Marc Fischer who became director of London-Film (Curierul Filmului Paste 1934, 5). Another Mihail film, Ofiterul de garda, from a piece by Molnar, was made in Budapest. See Curierul Filmului, Festival Issue, 1934, 8. Dubbed films had been made before this in Hungary and Berlin but were reported to be quite bad. For example, German director Martin Berger's Ciuleandra (1930) was considered an artistic fiasco because of the German accents, which had wrong cadences and strange pronunciations. Also, in 1932, Constantin Tanase brought to the screen Tanase's Dream, a sound film which was made in Berlin. Jean Georgescu left Romania to make a sound film in Paris in 1934, State la Bucuresti. See Ion Filotti Cantacuzino, Momente din trecutul filmului romanesc (Bucharest, 1965), 31. 13. The director of dubbing was F. M. Puggioli. See Cinema, January 1, 1935, 7; ‘Bilant’ by George Val, the editoral writer of Cinema up to March 15, 1935 and Curierul Filmului, Craciun (Christmas) Issue, 1934, 16–17. The recording device was provided by British Acoustics who brought this about thanks to Moccia Studios. The director of dialogue was Ion Sahighian, who worked at the National Theater and continued on to direct the 1939 films discussed in this paper. The film featured actress Jessie Mathews. 14. Curierul Filmului, November 1, 1934, 1. This article indicated Romanians were aware they were losing money because they were not dubbing. They were impressed by the French example in which an entire new cast was provided. 15. Al Serafim's article, Pentru realizarea filmului romanesc, in the first issue of Curierul Filmului, September 15, 1933, 1, mentions the repeated appeals that fall on deaf ears. Also see Cinema September 13, 1935, 2, and also in Advevarul; September 5, 1935. Cinema also has many appeals voiced by Ion Golea in his editorials, for example, March 1, 1935, 2. 16. Adevarul, September 5, 1935; N’avem un public, and Unde este publicul? Cinema, September 13, 1935, 2 and December 6, 1935, 2. 17. Stoil, 13. 18. Stoil, 13. 19. Curierul Filmului, September 15, 1933, 2. 20. O grava ofensa adusa cinematografistilor, Curierul Filmului, October 15, 1933, front page. 21. Curierul Filmului, February 25, 1934, 1, lists three divisions of films—cultural, entertaining and documentary films. Curierul Filmului, Easter Issue (March), 1, indicates cultural programming should make up 25% of daily screenings and 100% on Sunday. The tension between the Romanian government and the film advocates, which caused great consternation, shares a distant kinship to the one Moller has detailed in France but this is precisely one aspect that propels Romanian film supporters to look favorably on American support. Stoil indicates censorship restrictions also existed in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. However, Romania's censorships rules had additional limits. 22. Miscare cinematographica intr’ o perioda critica, Dimineata, March 26, 1934, 4. Golea's response seemed to address the article of Dimneata, February 24, 1934 on censorship. 23. Dimineata, March 19, 1934, 4. He says ‘in Romania “o vaca grasa de muls”, unde impozitul fiscal.’ Also see Joseph de Saxa, Cinematograful sub interdictie, Dimineata, February 24, 1934, 12. A previous response came from a representative of the art community who made a case to the Minister of Finance, D. Victor Slavescu, Cinematografistii la d. Minstru de finante, Curierul Filmului, Febuary 25, 1934, 1; Dimineata, February 22, 1934, on reorganizing of financial services. See Dimineata, February 16, 1934, 8, on exorbitant taxes. 24. Keith Hitchens, Rumania 1866–1947 (Oxford, 1994), 371–376 and 416–425. The new Liberal government, which came into power in 1934 after Duca's assassination remained until 1937, providing some stability. The fracture in the Liberal party may have worked in cinema's favor for the younger members who held the Ministerial positions, unlike their older predecessors, were open to Western business, although the country, as a whole, was moving to the right. The films of Duca's administration provided an arguing point for the beneficial purposes to which cinema could be enlisted. 25. Curierul Filmului, Festive Issue, 1934, 2 and 8. Among the propaganda films that were produced was Jean Mihail's documentary, Romanian 1934, which was made in Czechoslavkia. The ‘Industry’ concluded a three-year contract with Josef Becce, whom The American Cinematographer called ‘the best camera operator’ (‘Un as al manivelei’) from the Studios ‘Sascha’ and ‘Hunnia.’ He would work alongside engineer Franz Orban from Tobis, who recorded the sound. 26. Curierul Filmului, Craciun, 1934, 1. 27. Noul bir pe Cinematografe-n’are justificare, Curierul Filmului, February 15, 1935, 1. This tax, which had been initiated under great protests, amounted to 10 lei per meter of imported film and 1 lei per person in attendance at screenings. 28. Cinema, March 15, 1935, 2. 29. Ion Golea, Dimineata, January 5, 1934, 10. For other articles concerning ‘the public’ in 1935, the year Golea took over, see N-avem Public, Cinema September 13, 1935, 2, and Unde Este Publicul, Cinema, December 6, 1935, 2. Also see Eftimiu's September 5, 1935 article in Adevarul. 30. Cinema, March 15, 1935, 2. The only article I found that complains of the ‘dumping’ of American films appears in an article announcing a new studio backed by the Viennese, A New House (O Noua Casa), Curierul Filmului, September 25, 1935, 1. The house to which it refers is ‘Oficial Cinematografic Romanesc’ (OCR) which would come to represent Ufa, Bavaria, Tobis and Deutsche Film Export in 1939 gaining new energy. See Curierul Filmului, Christmas Issue, 1938, 1 and also Cinema, October 6, 1939, 19. 31. Paris-Hollywood, Cinema, December 4, 1937, 2. Also unusual is the fact that several persons mentioned were German, which should not have come as a surprise given the worsening situation in Germany, which was well known. See Hollywood Helps Artistic Emigrés from Germany (Hollywoodul ajuta pe artistii emigrats din Germania), Curierul Filmului, October 1, 1933, 3. 32. Curierul Filmului, October 1, 1937, 1, and the previous issue of the same publication turned its attention to its public when its front page changed its format to carry opinions of its readers on certain films or an interview with the past president of the film union, Stefan Scherer, concerning major contemporary cinematic issues of the day. 33. Cinema, August 29, 1937, 22. In an editorial in Cinema, February 28, 1934, on the celebration of its 301st issue, five persons were estimated to share each issue. Interestingly, 40,000 was almost the same number as the undergraduate population of 1933–34. Bucharest had 639,040 inhabitants, Romania 18,057,028 by the 1930 census. Romania's population had suddenly more than doubled (from the 7,897,311 of the previous census), as a result of a doubling of territory at the end of WWII. 34. Cinema, January 1, 1935, 8; Cinema, February 15, 1935, 2; and Dimineata, February 11, 1935, 8a. A much longer article appeared in Cinema, May 10, 1935, 1–8, in which the two lead characters appeared on the cover. Curierul Filmului also ran articles on February 15, 1935, 3, and March 29, 1935, 18. It also carried a special article on Argani: Leaderful filmului romanesc: Ing. Argani, Curierul Filmului, March 1, 1935, 1. 35. Un spectacol autohton, Cinema, January 4, 1936, 12: ‘Bing Bang desigur nu a fost o realizare de mari insusiri. Totusi asa cum s’a prezentat a reusit sa obtina incasari maxime—Acest fapt dovesdeste odata mai mult ca publicul asteapta filme romanesti.’ 36. Cinema, March 15, 1935, 21, was the launch and it was advertised again in Cinema, March 29, 1935, 18. The age perimeters might suggest Hollywood's influence on Romanian standards. A national campaign was hoped for. 37. Cinema, November 27, 1937, 8. One French actress was also mentioned. 38. Cinema, May 24, 1935, 23. Also see Cinema, June 7, 1935, 20 which indicates the great success in drawing talent from all parts of the country. Filming of the winners took place in the garden of ARPA, a cinema on Calea Victoriei. Particulars were to be announced in Dimineata and Adevarul by June 8 and 9. 39. Suchianu wrote a regular column for Cinema, ‘Cronica Filmelor,’ and at the end of the 1930s he would lead the ONC, according to an interview with Cantacuzino (see Stoil, 31). For Constantin Tanase see Cinema, June 7, 1935, 20. Another judge was Nestor Cassvan the executive director of Cinema who also wrote articles about the public (see N’avem Public, Cinema, September 13, 1935, 2). Additional members were Joseph de Saxa (see footnote #11); George Val, Golea's predecessor as editor of Cinema; N. Vladoianu, and D.H. Blazian (Cinema, June 7, 1935). 40. Cinema, June 7, 1935, 17–19. Didona Radulescu received an honorable mention, as did D. Daly Westler in the comic category. Others included Eliza Ivanovici (Bazargic) and Beatrice Voinescu (Galati). Regional winners were also singled out for mention: these included Emilia Zaharia and Paraschiva Bob from Bistrita and Rodna, respectively, and Nicolae Grigoriev from Balti. In Cinema, May 24, 1935, 23, it was proclaimed more successful than thought. 41. Curierul Filmului, May 31, 1935 (also see June 8, 1935). This festival became an annual event but it changed character slightly, replacing the artistic cultural focus with a more diplomatic and political one. See same journal for May 22, 1936. 42. Cinema, September 27, 1935, 2. 43. Stoil, 16. According to Stoil, this fund was ineffective for other reasons as well: the taxes collected were blocked as a result of having no plan for distributing them and no sound laboratory was included in the plan (which would seem to conflict with the advertisement for the laboratory in Curierul Filmului). According to this critic, the State Cinematographic Studio and its lab could be used by private studios after 1938. Much of this information came from an interview with Ion F. Cantacuzino. 44. Cinema, November 22, 1935, 24. 45. Cinema, March 13, 1936, 14–17. 46. Cinema, February 1, 1936, 10. 47. Large ads for Posmantir's lab can be found in Curierul Filmului, Pasti 1936, 8, and other issues. The Posmantir family worked for the Carol I Foundation. See Queen of Roumania: the life of Princess Marie, grand-daughter of Queen Victoria by Hannah Pakula (London, Elan, 1984), 325. One of the family was credited with bringing King Carol II together with the ‘infamous’ Elena Lupescu (Latinized and de-Semitized fromWolff). Ms. Pakula was told this by Mme. Lupescu's biographer, Alice-Leone Moats. 48. Cinema, March 27, 1936, 10. 49. Also see the opening editorial in Cinema, January 4, 1937, 2. 50. Stoil, 13–14. 51. Stoil, 15 and 19. Stoil mentions that the Yugoslavian administration and management of the taxes collected was ineffective, and they were used for general-purpose projects, not cinema specifically. 52. Farid El-Mazzoui, Film in Egypt, Hollywood Quarterly, 4(3) (Spring 1950), 245–250. Also see Cinema, September 9, 1939, 10. 53. Sava Arslan, Cinema in Turkey (Oxford, 2011), 2. 54. ‘Miss Cinema’ was launched November 22, 1937, 8, with Joan Crawford (‘Vedete de cinema care isi datoreaza cariera unui concurs’); Lili Damita appeared on December 4, 1937, 11; Mary Brian on December 11, 1937, 17; Ida Lupino on December 16, 1937, 19. 55. The ‘Miss Cinema’ contest was divided into seven groups of females, approximately one group per month. Initial selections were made by an appointed committee, but the final selection was placed in the hands of the readers of the magazine, who found ballots in each issue. The ‘Mr Cinema’ contest followed a similar format. The final winners were announced in Cinema on May 7, 1938, 3–4 and October 8, 1938, 5, respectively. The first prize for ‘Miss Cinema’ was awarded to Maria Petrescu from Craiova and Vera Semenco of Gura Humorului took second prize. The ‘Mr. Cinema’ contest was divided into three categories, Lec Andru from Bistrita; Adolf Bohacencu from Cernauti; and Filip Cornester from Bucharest were selected. The results of the competition clearly indicated that Cinema had achieved one of its goals, to expand its public beyond a Bucharest base. The prize consisted of 5000 lei and promotion by studios. 56. An article on Erkenasy's role as head of Diva Films and a caricature of him appeared in Cinema, August 29, 1937, 4. Also see Cinema August 1, 1937, 8. 57. The film was advertized in the Pathe-Natan listings for the 1937–38 season (Cinema, August 15, 1937, 21). Moller recounts that the Pathe-Natan company in France declared bankruptcy in 1935 when Bernard Natan, a Romanian Jew, who headed it was scapegoated (118). This followed a widespread liquidation of large production companies in France, which changed the face of the film industry. Natan was subsequently deprived of his French citizenship and was sent to Drancy and then on September 25, 1942, to Auschwitz and never returned. 58. Cinema, August 1, 1937, 11. 59. Cinema, August 29, 1937, 4, discusses the production of the film. Curtiz lived in Transylvania/Ardeal, a region that was ruled by Romania after WWI. Previous to this, he had worked in Vienna, among other cities. Major trained with Curtiz before he left, but it would have been natural to keep up a connection. Also, Disideriu's brother, Henry Major, was working in the States as a caricaturist. 60. Etajul, in spite of the glamour, the film was judged a failure for its deficiency in plot. Cinema, July 15, 1939, 6–7, and September 15, 1939, 16. Also see Cinema, September 11, 1937, 10–11; October 2, 1937, front cover; and November 13, 1937, back cover. The film included actors from the National Theater of Bucharest and from the Volkstheater in Vienna. 61. Initially prize money was 5000 lei but increased by February 11, 1939, to 10,000. An issue of Cinema cost 5 lei. 62. Contests started on September 18, 1937, 18, with eyes, followed by lips, September 25, 1937, 21. This dismemberment reminds one of Hamid Naficy's discussions of Iran's objectification of Hollywood actresses and actors. 63. Cinema, February 18, 1939, 20. This entry asked for Romanian versions of Fred McMurray; another included a similar contest for Danielle Darrieux who went back and forth between Hollywood and Paris (February 25, 1939, 20) and on April 1, 1939, 20, the competition wanted a Romanian version of a Romanian actor. 64. Cinema, November 5, 1938, 7–8. 65. Film of the Day, Timpul, January 16, 1938, 4. This features the films playing in Bucharest. Checking this feature over the early part of 1938, one sees it remains about the same. 66. Stoil, 16. 67. Cinema, November 20, 1937, 2. 68. Hitchens, 419–425 and 440–43. The Iron Guard, having won 66 seats in Parliament in the 1937 elections were, in effect, biding time until they had the power necessary to act, according to Hitchens. The German-leaning faction of the government was represented by Octavian Goga. King Carol was, in fact, the one who invited him to form party. He became Prime Minister upon the resignation of his Liberal predecessor, Tatarescu, after three years in office. In supporting Carol's belief that Codreanu and other Guardists were agents of Hitler, Hitchens points to the following: they were arrested following the Austria's Anschluss in March 1938; Codreanu received 10 years in prison for treason and many members were put in concentration camps designed for this purpose, they were murdered in November following Carol's visit to Hitler at Berchtsgarden where Carol was urged to form a Codreanu cabinet. According to R. G. Waldeck, Hitler is to have said ‘there exists only one dictator of Romania and that is Codreanu.’ See Athene Palace (Oxford, 1998), 17. The reprisal for these deaths came in the form of the killing of Prime Minister Armand Calinescu in September of 1939, after five months in office. Yet this was believed to be the action of an isolated group since the mass following of the Guard was largely dissipated. 69. Curierul Filmului, Christmas 1938, front page. He had written for Adevarul literar for 10 years before. 70. Cronica Filmelor, Cinema, January 4, 1936, 31. Almost any edition of this regular column, which later became known as ‘Filmele Saptamanii’, will contain some discussion of American films. He recognized and praised Hollywood often for its superbly crafted ‘entertainment.’ 71. Arhivele Nationale Istorice Centrale in Bucharest, Romania; hereafter, ANIC. Referat regarding ANIC letter to D.I. Suchianu by Reichsfilmkammer expressing disappointment that the agreement was not fulfilled, June 15, 1940, Film Code MPN 2906/12-3-135. See Nelson, Hollywood's Struggle for Romania, 295–319. Information from this previous work will be referenced throughout the conclusion of this article. 72. The second film, Romanian Dances (‘Dansuri romanesti’), encompassed three parts, each featuring Romanian music: (1) ‘Ctitoritele’ with Dona Nutzi and Marie Jeane Livezeanu, music by Martian Negrea; (2) ‘Fata din dragus,’ music by Sabin Dragoi and (3) ‘Joc si dolian,’ Curierul Filmului, December 25, 1939, 6. 73. Curierul Filmului, December 25, 1939, 4; Golea, Ion. Cinema, December 15, 1939, 2, and Cinema, July 15, 1939, 6–7. The last of these, in the course of discussing O Noapte, reassesses Doamna dela etajul II as a failure, which had offered valuable lessons. 74. Dina was likely related to the acting family of Alice Cocea, a Romanian working in films in France but who was said to have learned acting from the Americans (Suchianu in a review of one of her films offers this as a reason her acting is so natural (Cinema, January 4, 1936, 25). Lully Cocea was one of the finalists in one of the following ‘Miss Cinema’ contests (Cinema, April 22, 1939, 18). 75. Golea, Ion, December 15, 1939, 2. 76. Golea, Ion, December 15, 1939, 2. 77. Stoil, 16. In interviews with I. Cantacuzino and H. Dana in Bucharest in June 1975, it was indicated that access was granted sometime at the end of 1938. It is not clear who might have been in a position to take advantage of this. 78. Curierul Filmului, Decmber 25, 1939, 2. 79. Curierul Filmului, December 25, 1939, 2–3; Cinema, December 22, 1939, 2–3. The Polish heritage of Warner Bros.'s studio heads may well have contributed to its decision to stay in a country that bordered their homeland, as I have suggested elsewhere. 80. ANIC. Letter from Ion Stefanescu to Minister of Economiei Nationale Directiunei, C. Demestrescu, April 2, 1942 MPN: 2906/12/38/97. Also see MPN 2906/12 /38/96. Confirms financial statement. 81. ANIC. Warner Bros.'s First National S.A.R. Report. File Code: Ministry of National Propaganda (MPN) 2906/24/48 and 50. Unlike Germany, film school graduates in Romania were not plentiful. 82. ANIC. File Code: MPN 2906/26/ 2and 7. MGM stock was also acquired by the same person. 83. Cinema, May 11, 1941, 13. ANIC from M.V. Puscariu to Minister of Propaganda stamped December 30, 1941. File code: MPN 2906/12/26/71. A link interesting to note is that one of the chief advocates for American films, Nestor Cassvan, who had been the executive director of Cinema, and was mentioned before in relation to Golea, later became administrative leader (conducerea administrative) of the ONC collaboration, Suflete in futuna ANIC. MPN 2720; 12; 2; #31). 84. Cinema, December 21, 1942, 13–14. 85. After 1941, Romania's Cinematographic Service of the National Tourism Office changed into the National Cinematographic Office (ONC) according to Stoil, 16. He also states ‘it is tempting to hypothesize that Balkan film-making was impossible without direct government support,’ because of instable financial growth, which resulted from an agricultural economy subjected to waves of ‘boom and bust’ and related also to low per capital income. Yet he questions why Romania's output, with governmental aid, was less than small countries like Czechoslovakia and Denmark who had none. 86. Mihail Sebastian, Journal 1935–1944 (London, 2003), 612. During this interim Stoil notes film producers worked in ‘the traditional form of independent entrepreneurs … rather than working within the context of a well-organized production company’ (19). 87. Sosesc Filmele Americane, Cinema, September 13–30, 44. 88. ‘Since the state already controlled the best production facilities, the transition to socialist filmmaking was relatively painless.’ Stoil, 19. 89. Marcel Blossoms transferred to Artafilm (1948) under Communism. He was a well-known publicist who had worked for Warner Bros. (Biografia inedita a unui regizor Archives).