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Meeting the Challenge from Totalitarianism: The Tennessee Valley Authority as a Global Model for Liberal Development, 1933–1945

2010; Routledge; Volume: 32; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/07075330903516637

1949-6540

David Ekbladh,

Globalization and political ideologies

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1 O. Keun, A Foreigner Looks at TVA (New York, NY, 1937), p. 5. 2 Ibid., pp. 4–6. 3 G. F. Kennan, 'Memo for the Minister', 19 Aug. 1932, repr., New York Review of Books, 26 April 2001. 4 See O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York, NY, 2005), pp. 1–7; and D. Engerman, 'The Romance of Economic Development and New Histories of the Cold War', Diplomatic History, xxviii (2004), 3–54. 5 C. Lancaster, Foreign Aid: Diplomacy, Development, Domestic Politics (Chicago, IL, 2007), pp. 28–9. 6 W. Sachs, 'The Archaeology of the Development Idea', INTERculture, xxiii (1990), 2–3; G. Rist, The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith (New York, NY, 1997), pp. 70–5; The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power, ed. W. Sachs (New York, NY, 1992), pp. 6–7. 7 Quoted in D. Reynolds, From Munich to Pearl Harbor: Roosevelt's America and the Origins of the Second World War (Chicago, IL, 2001), pp. 30–1. 8 R. Niebuhr, Reflections on the End of an Era (New York, NY, 1934), p. 23. 9 H. Laski, Democracy in Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC, 1933), pp. 16–19, 237. See also, M. Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York, NY, 1999), pp. 3–17. 10 R. B. Fosdick, Companions in Depression: The International Implications of the Business Slump (New York, NY, 1930), p. 3. 11 J. Shotwell, The Conditions of Enduring Prosperity (New York, NY, 1931), p. 10. 12 R. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Social Thought in the Depression Years (New York, NY, 1973), pp. 43–95. 13 Mazower, Dark Continent, pp. 104–15; R. O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York, NY, 2004), pp. 3–54; R. J. Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (New York, NY, 2004), pp. 349–91. 14 M. Malia, Russia under Western Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 314–56. 15 S. Chase, A New Deal (New York, NY, 1932), pp. 235–52. 16 S. Chase, 'TVA: The New Deal's Best Asset, The Great Transition', The Nation, 24 June 1936, pp. 804–5; idem, 'TVA: The New Deal's Best Asset, Broadening the Exchange Base', The Nation, 10 June 1936, pp. 738–41; idem, 'TVA: The New Deal's Best Asset, Planning by Consent', The Nation, 17 June 1936, pp. 775–7; idem, 'TVA: The New Deal's Best Asset, Landscape and Background', The Nation, 3 June 1936, pp. 702–5. 17 J. Huxley, Africa View (London, 1931), pp. 1–16; idem, A Scientist among the Soviets (New York, NY, 1932), pp. 60–1. For the international intellectual economy that underpinned the New Deal, see D. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 409–84. 18 Huxley, Scientist, pp. 6, 14–15, 18, 34. 19 J. Huxley, If I Were Dictator (New York, NY, 1934), pp. 99–100. 20 J. Huxley, 'Plans for Tomorrow: The Tennessee Valley Authority', The Listener, 20 Nov. 1935, pp. 897–900. 21 J. Huxley, 'The TVA: A Great American Experiment', The Times, 21 May 1935; J. Huxley, 'The TVA - A Town in the Making', The Times, 22 May 1935. 22 J. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT, 1998), p. 6. 23 D. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880–1940 (Cambridge, 1990), p. 298; D. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–45 (New York, NY, 1999), pp. 147–9; TVA: Fifty Years of Grass-Roots Bureaucracy, ed. E. C. Hargrove and P. K. Conkin (Urbana, IL, 1983), pp. 3–34. 24 J. A. Schwarz, The New Dealers: Power Politics in the Age of Roosevelt (New York, NY, 1993), pp. xi–xii; A. J. Badger, The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–40 (Chicago, IL, 2002), pp. 169, 175–7; 'Tennessee Valley Authority Act', 18 May 1933, New Deal Network, http://newdeal.feri.org/html, accessed 12 Dec. 2001; National Emergency Council, Report on Economic Conditions of the South (Washington, DC, 1938), p. 1. 25 Memo, Draper, 'Regional Planning and the Tennessee Valley Authority', 14 Jan. 1935, [Atlanta, GA, United States National Archives Southeast Region, Record Group 142, Records of the] T[ennessee] V[alley] A[uthority], box 242. See also, D. Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, NY, 1985), pp. 5–15; World Commission on Dams: Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decisionmaking (Sterling, 2000), p. xxix; R. White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York, NY, 1995), pp. 55–8; J. R. McNeill, Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World (New York, NY, 2000), pp. 149–91. 26 D. Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape, and the Making of Modern Germany (New York, NY, 2006), pp. 245–6. 27 P. Hutchinson, 'Revolution by Electricity', Scribner's Magazine (Oct. 1934), p. 194. 28 Milton to Arnett, 22 May 1933 [North Tarrytown, NY], R[ockefeller] A[rchive] C[enter], RG 1, series 1, box 159; comments, Jandrey, 20 Feb. 1943, TVA, box 79; 'Roosevelt's Development Plan Seen as Boon to South', Greensboro Daily News, 3 April 1933. 29 P. D. Reagan, Designing a New America: The Origins of New Deal Planning, 1890–1943 (Amherst, MA, 1999), pp. 5–7. 30 T. Howard, 'The Social Scientist in the Tennessee Valley Authority Program', Social Forces, xv (1936), 29. 31 E. Wengert, 'TVA Enlists Local Cooperation', Public Opinion Quarterly, i (1937), 97–101; memo, anon., 'Plan of the Tennessee Valley Study', 20 May, Thompson to Crane, 20 June 1933, RAC, RG 1.1, series 200, box 407. 32 Memo, Bishop, 'The Health Program as a Contribution to the Population Engaged in the Economies of the Tennessee Valley', 1 Feb. 1937, RAC, RG 2, box 132. 33 Reagan, New America, pp. 224–5. 34 W. Lippmann, An Inquiry into the Principles of the Good Society (Boston, MA, 1937), pp. 3–4. 35 K. Mannheim and E. Shils, Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction; Studies in Modern Social Structure (New York, NY, 1940), p. 6. 36 J. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution: What Is Happening in the World (New York, NY, 1941), pp. 1–8. 37 E. Vennard, 'The Case against TVA', 1943; idem, 'Supplement to The Case against TVA', 1944; idem, 'Dangers of the TVA Method of River Control', 1945, TVA, Office of the Chairman and the Board of Directors, David E. Lilienthal Records, box 1; Nye, Electrifying America, pp. 308–9. On planning, see G. Alchon, The Invisible Hand of Planning: Capitalism, Social Science, and the State in the 1920s (Princeton, NJ, 1985), pp. 3–7, 152–71, and J. M. Jordan, Machine-Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911–39 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994), pp. 93–279. 38 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, pp. 452–61; Badger, New Deal, p. 176. 39 S. Neuse, David E. Lilienthal: The Journey of an American Liberal (Knoxville, TN, 1996), pp. 24–66, 131. 40 'Digest of TVA', Sept.–Oct. 1933, RAC, RG 1.1, series 200, box 407. 41 Jordan, Machine-Age Ideology, pp. 243–5; R. Talbert, FDR's Utopian: Arthur Morgan of the TVA (Jackson, MS, 1987), pp. 169–94; Neuse, Lilienthal, pp. 93–108. 42 Paper, Lilienthal, 'The TVA: An Experiment in the "Grass Roots" Administration of Federal Functions', 10 Nov. 1939, [Princeton, NJ, Princeton University, Mudd Library, David E.] Lilienthal Papers, box 20. 43 Broadcast, Lilienthal, 'For This We Fight: Public Works in Postwar America', 30 Oct. 1943, Washington, DC, Library of Congress, Motion Picture, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division, NBC Collection, Audio Recording, RWA 8617B3-4; See also, D. E. Lilienthal, 'The TVA and Decentralization', Survey Graphic, 1 June 1940. New Deal Network, http://newdeal.feri.org/texts/262.htm, accessed 4 Nov. 2009. 44 See D. E. Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March, rev. ed. (New York, NY, 1953), pp. 196–200, 203–9, though unchanged from the first edition, published in 1944. 45 A. Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York, NY, 1996), pp. 3–14; T. Bender, A Nation among Nations: America's Place in World History (New York, NY, 2006), pp. 246–95. 46 B. Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003), pp. 2–4. 47 Mallory to Stolper, 15 Dec. 1936; Meeting Report, 'Rise of Dictator States in Europe, First Meeting', 6 Jan. 1937, Mudd Library, Council on Foreign Relations Archives, Study Groups, box 39. See also, R. D. Schulzinger, The Wise Men of Foreign Affairs: The History of the Council on Foreign Relations (New York, NY, 1984), pp. 31–79. 48 T. Maddux, 'Red Fascism and Brown Bolshevism: The American Image of Totalitarianism in the 1930s', Historian, xl (1977), 85–103; L. K. Adler and T. G. Paterson, 'Red Fascism: The Merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American Image of Totalitarianism, 1930's–1950's', American Historical Review, lxxv (1970),1046–64. 49 I. Parmar, '"To Relate Knowledge to Action": The Impact of the Rockefeller Foundation on Foreign Policy Thinking during America's Rise to Globalism, 1939–45', Minerva, xl (2002), 235–63; idem, 'The Carnegie Corporation and the Mobilization of Opinion in the United States' Rise to Globalism, 1939–45', Minerva, xxxvii (1999), 355–78. 50 Memo, Willits, 16 Sept. 1940, RAC, RG 3, series 910, box 11. 51 Memo, anon., 'Studies of the Nature of Totalitarian Societies', 3 Oct. 1940; memo, Willits, 19 Aug. 1940, RAC, RG 3, series 910, box 11. For the medical metaphor, see, e.g., C. J. Friedrich, 'Introduction', in Totalitarianism, ed. idem (Cambridge, 1954), pp. 1–14. 52 H. Lasswell and J. Stanley, Essays on the Garrison State (New Brunswick, NJ, 1997), pp. 17–75. 53 R. A. Kennedy, 'Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and an American Conception of National Security', Diplomatic History, xxv (2001), 1–31. 54 See A. Gleason, Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War (New York, NY, 1995), pp. 31–50; M. P. Leffler, The Specter of Communism: The United States and the Origins of the Cold War (New York, NY, 1994), pp. 28–32, 128–30; A. L. Friedberg, In the Shadow of the Garrison State: America's Anti-Statism and Its Cold War Grand Strategy (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 3–33. 55 Reynolds, From Munich to Pearl Harbor, pp. 69–101, 102–32; A. Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore, MD, 1997), pp. 91–130. 56 J. B. Condliffe, War and Depression (Boston, MA, 1935), pp. 5–30; H. A. Wallace, America Must Choose (New York, NY, 1934), pp. 1–33. On the international impact of nationalism and planning, see W. Lippmann, 'Self-Sufficiency: Some Random Reflections', Foreign Affairs, xii (Jan. 1934), 207–15; G. Cole, 'Planning and International Trade', Foreign Affairs, xii (Jan. 1934), 231–43. 57 Speech, Roosevelt, Chautauqua, New York, 14 Aug. 1936, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15097&st=Chautauqua&st1=, accessed 8 June 2007. See also, F. A. Ninkovich The Wilsonian Century: US Foreign Policy since 1900 (Chicago, IL, 1999), pp. 124–5. 58 Papers, Staley, 'Cancellation of Allied War Debts', 1923; 'Social and Economic Theories of Beatrice and Sidney Webb', 1926; 'A Scheme for Reforming Economics and for Making It a Hypothetical Science', n.d. [Stanford, CA, Hoover Institution Archives, Eugene] Staley Papers, box 1. 59 S. Strunsky, 'Machines: The Threat Appraised', New York Times, 29 Jan. 1933; R. B. Fosdick, The Old Savage in the New Civilization (Garden City, NY, 1928), pp. 1–32. 60 E. Staley, 'What Price Self-Sufficiency?', Christian Science Monitor, 22 Sept. 1937; idem, World Economy in Transition (New York, NY, 1939), pp. 206–22; idem, Raw Materials in Peace and War (New York, NY, 1937), pp. 3–15. 61 E. Staley, 'Power Economy versus Welfare Economy', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, cxcviii (1938), 9–14. 62 Staley, World Economy, p. 328. 63 Ibid., pp. 327–30. 64 Paper, Staley, 'Economic Foundations of a Just and Enduring Peace', 30 May 1941, Staley Papers, box 3; Staley, Raw Materials, pp. 55–69. 65 E. Staley, 'What Types of Economic Planning Are Compatible with Free Institutions?', Plan Age (Feb. 1940), 33–50. 66 Staley, World Economy, pp. 279–81. 67 Ibid., pp. 68, 269–86, 333. 68 Speech, Staley, 'Answer to Lindbergh', 2 July 1941, Staley Papers, box 3; speech, Staley, 'To Massachusetts League of Women Voters', 23 Jan. 1940, ibid.; radio broadcasts, 'University of Chicago Round Table', NBC Radio Network, ibid., box 4. 69 E. Staley, 'The Myths of the Continents', Foreign Affairs, xix (April 1941), 481–94; C. Beard, A Foreign Policy for America (New York, NY, 1940), pp. 12–35; J. Frank, Save America First (New York, NY, 1938), pp. xii–xiii. See also, R. Radosh, Prophets on the Right: Profiles of Conservative Critics of American Globalism (New York, NY, 1975), pp. 17–75. 70 E. Staley, 'Can Capitalism Survive the War?', 25 June 1941; E. Staley, 'The World Is Round', 23 Oct. 1942, Staley Papers, box 3; H. Luce, 'The American Century' [1941], repr. Diplomatic History, xxiii (1999), 166. 71 H. W. Arndt, 'Development Economics before 1945', in Development and Planning: Essays in Honor of Paul Rosenstein Rodan, ed. J. Bhagwati and R. Eckaus (London, 1972), p. 26; idem, 'Economic Development: A Semantic History', Economic Development and Cultural Change, xxix (1981), 465. 72 O. Keun, My Adventures in Bolshevik Russia (New York, NY, 1923), pp. 318–20; idem, Darkness from the North (London, 1935), pp. 114–16; J. Huxley, Memories (London, 1970), p. 166. 73 Keun, TVA, pp. 4–5. 74 Ibid., p. 89. 75 Notes, 'Luncheon Meeting between Morgan, Meriam, and Ascher', 5 Feb. 1936, RAC, RG 1.1, series 200, box 407; F. Ninkovich, 'The Rockefeller Foundation, China, and Cultural Change', Journal of American History, lxx (1984), 799–820. 76 Report, 'Administrative Organization of the Tennessee Valley Authority and Future Regional Authorities', 14 May 1937, Hyde Park, NY, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, president's secretary's file, box 166; W. E. Leuchtenburg, 'Roosevelt, Norris, and the "Seven Little TVAs"', Journal of Politics , xiv (1952), 418–41. 77 Memo, Grant, 'Tennessee Valley Authority', 19 Dec. 1934, RAC, RG 1.1, series 200, box 407. 78 May to Gough, 9 June 1937, RAC, RG 2, series 248, box 147; O. J. Todd, 'As an Engineer Sees America in 1935', Journal of the Association of Chinese and American Engineers (Nov.–Dec. 1935 and Jan.–Feb. 1936), pp. 369–71; O. J. Todd, Two Decades in China (Taipei, 1971), pp. 369–71, 383–4. 79 'Visitors Six Months of 1937', 30 Nov. 1937, TVA, box 620; L. S. Hsu, 'A Sociological View on Rural Reconstruction', China Critic, 26 Dec. 1935; R. Rook, 'Race, Water, and Foreign Policy: The Tennessee Valley Authority's Global Agenda Meets "Jim Crow"', Diplomatic History, xxviii (2004), 55–81. 80 'China Program Progress Report', 15 April 1936, RAC, RG 1.1, series 601 [China], box 12. 81 Gunn to Fosdick, 9 Dec. 1936, Gunn to Sawyer, 19 Oct. 1937, RAC, RG 1.1, series 601, box 13; Favrot to Gunn, 31 March 1937, ibid., box 1. 82 G. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: US Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York, NY, 2008), pp. 527–9. 83 F. Ninkovich, Diplomacy of Ideas: US Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–50 (New York, NY, 1981), pp. 23–34; C. C. Erb, 'Prelude to Point Four: The Institute of Inter-American Affairs', Diplomatic History, ix (1985), 249–69; D. Rivas, Missionary Capitalist: Nelson Rockefeller in Venezuela (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), pp. 39–41; C. Reich, The Life of Nelson Rockefeller: Worlds to Conquer, 1908–58 (New York, NY, 1996), pp. 176–240. 84 Memo, Huxley, 9 Dec. 1939; 'Final Report on Visit to USA', Dec. 1939–Feb. 1940; 'Interim Report on Visit to USA', 28 Nov.–Dec. 1939: Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University, Special Collections, Isaiah Bowman Papers, box 14.4; R. L. Duffus, 'Blueprint for a Post-War World', New York Times, 28 Jan. 1940. 85 Conference Proceedings, 'The Economic and Political Bases of Durable Peace', April 1940, Swarthmore College, Peace Collection, World Peace Foundation Papers, box 12. 86 E. Staley, 'Toward a Durable Peace', Common Sense Magazine, 2 April 1942; idem, 'Economic Aspects of Relief and Rehabilitation', 26 Aug. 1943; idem, 'Foreign Investment as an Economic Investment', 5 Jan. 1944, Staley Papers, box 3; E. Durbin, The Economic Basis of Peace: A Four Point Program (London, 1942), 22–30; Problems of Post-War Reconstruction, ed. H. P. Jordan (Washington, DC, 1942), xi–xviii; P. E. Corbett, Post-War Worlds (New York, NY, 1942), pp. 125–8. 87 E. Staley, World Economic Development: Effects on Advanced Industrial Countries (Montreal, 1944), pp. 15–20. 88 Staley, Economic Development, p. 5. 89 Memo, anon., 'Notes on the Definition of Relief and Rehabilitation', 23 May 1943, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Philip C. Jessup Papers, box 263; Staley to Rogers, 16 Aug. 1944, Staley Papers, box 1; Staley, Economic Development, pp. 8, 190. 90 Ibid., pp. 31–2. 91 Report, Staley, 'Joint Action Program Proposed by the Viet Nam-United States Special Financial Groups', 25 July 1961, Boston, MA, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security File, box 231. 92 D. Anderson, 'David Mitrany (1888–1975): An Appreciation of His Life and Work', Review of International Studies, xxiv (1998), 579; D. Mitrany, American Interpretations (London, 1946), pp. 18–22, 111. 93 Neuse, Lilienthal, pp. 247–9, 276. 94 G. Brochmann, The Adventure of TVA Translation (Oslo, 1945), TVA, GM, box 1, 2, 4–5; F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Chicago, IL, 1944), pp. 247–8; 'TVA for Wales', n.d. [1946], Lilienthal Papers, box 116; Wistrand to Lilienthal, 25 May 1944, TVA [Records of the] G[eneral] M[anager], box 348; memo, Commission on Palestine Surveys, 28 Nov. 1942, ibid., box 54; P. B. D. de la Mare, 'Working at the Grass Roots': A Forward Policy for New Zealand, A Digest of David E. Lilienthal's TVA, 1946, Lilienthal Papers, box 116; Indian Scientists Delegation - Visit to TVA, 19 Dec. 1945; Hume to Lilienthal, 17 Jan. 1944, TVA, GM, box 347. 95 Radio broadcasts, 'UNESCO World Review', 9 April 1949, 'Is UNESCO the Key to International Understanding?', 1 June 1946, NBC University of the Air.