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Preserve and strengthen family to promote mental health

2010; Medknow; Volume: 52; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.4103/0019-5545.64582

1998-3794

Ajit Avasthi,

Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum

INTRODUCTION Unlike the West, in India, family is the key resource in the care of patients with mental illness. Families assume the role of primary caregivers for two reasons. First, it is because of the Indian tradition of interdependence and concern for near and dear ones in adversities. Due to this most Indian families prefer to be meaningfully involved in all aspects of care of their relatives despite it being time-consuming. Second, there is a paucity of trained mental health professionals required to cater to the vast majority of the population; hence, the clinicians depend on the family. Thus, having an adequate family support is the need of the patient, clinician and the healthcare administrators. The term family has its root in the Latin word 'familia' that denotes a household establishment, akin to 'famulus', which denoted a servant who came from that household establishment. In the ancient Roman law, the word denoted the group of producers, slaves and other servants as well as members connected by common descent or marriage. Family as we understand today has been defined in the Oxford dictionary as (i) The body of persons who live in one house or under one head, including parents, children, servants, (ii) The group consisting of parents and their children, whether living together or not; in wider sense, all those who are nearly connected by blood or affinity. (iii) A person's children reared collectively. (iv) Those descended, or claiming descent from a common ancestor. From the point of view of psychiatry, family denotes a group of individuals who live together during important phases of their life time and are bound to each other by biological and /or social and psychological relationship. It is a group defined by a sexual relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.[1] When we look at the family as a unit, the following features are common across the globe: it is universal, permanent, nucleus of all social relationships, has an emotional basis, has a formative influence over its members, teaches its members as to what is their social responsibility and the necessity for co-operation and follows a social regulation.[2] FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL INDIAN FAMILIES India is a secular and pluralistic society characterized by tremendous cultural and ethnic diversity. In India the family is the most important institution that has survived through the ages. India, like most other less industrialized, traditional, eastern societies is a collectivist (a sense of harmony, interdependence and concern for others) society that emphasizes family integrity, family loyalty, and family unity. More specifically, collectivism is reflected in greater readiness to cooperate with family members and extended kin on decisions affecting most aspects of life, including career choice, mate selection, and marriage.[3] Since ages, the Indian family has been a dominant institution in the life of individuals. It is considered strong, stable, close, resilient and enduring. In India, overwhelmingly, families adhere to a patriarchal ideology, follow the patrilineal rule of descent, are patrilocal, have familialistic value orientations, and endorse traditional gender role preferences. Historically, the traditional, ideal and desired family in India is the joint family. A joint family includes kinsmen, and generally includes three to four living generations, including uncles, aunts, nieces, nephews, and grandparents living together in the same household. Frequently, a large joint family divides after the demise of elderly parents, when there is no longer a single authority figure to hold the family together. After division, each new residential unit, in its turn, usually becomes a joint family when sons of the family marry and bring their wives to live in the family home. The lines of hierarchy and authority are clearly drawn, shaping structurally and psychologically complex family relationships. Ideals of conduct are aimed at creating and maintaining family harmony. Women are especially strongly socialized to accept a position subservient to males, to control their sexual impulses, and to subordinate their personal preferences to the needs of the family and kin group. Reciprocally, those in authority accept responsibility for meeting the needs of others in the family group. Psychologically, family members feel an intense emotional interdependence with each other and there is strong interpersonal empathy, closeness, loyalty, and interdependency.[3] INTEGRATION OF FAMILY IN MENTAL HEALTH DELIVERY :INDIAN SCENARIO Until the arrival of the Britishers, there were no organized modern mental healthcare services in India and the mentally ill were looked after by their families or in religious institutions or simply roamed free. The Britishers established 'mental asylums' – institutions which were popular in the European countries, where the community felt safe to keep the unwanted, dangerous mentally ill in closed institutions away from family and society. This was initially for their soldiers but the benefits were gradually extended to the Indian population as well. The first mental asylum was established in Bombay in 1745, the second in Calcutta (1781), the third in Madras (1794) and the fourth in Monghyr, Bihar (1795). Around the same time, Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) in France, William Tuke (1732-1822) in England and Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in United States ushered in the era of 'moral treatment' in psychiatry, which included humane care, avoiding physical restraints, better staff patient interaction and an open door system. Adolf Meyer, in 1909, advocated management of mentally ill patients outside the institutions and proposed a comprehensive 'community mental health approach' in which psychiatrists, family physicians, police, teachers and social workers would work together to organize primary, secondary, and tertiary preventive measures in the community. All these changes, taking place in Europe and America did not make any impact on the Indian scene. Till 1946, the approach of the Government was to establish custodial and no therapeutic centers, for a small percentage of severely mentally ill and handicapped individuals.[4] The community mental health movement in USA had its rise and fall between 1950s and 1980s. President John F Kennedy passed a resolution in 1963 to establish community mental health centers and offer care for mentally ill, who would get released from mental hospitals. A large number of community mental health centers were established. But over a period of time, the community psychiatric approach fell into disrepute because severely ill patients who were released did not go to the community mental health centers. They were not accepted by their families, which resulted in 'trans-institutionalization'. They were housed in private nursing homes, and board-and-care institutions. In India there has been a long tradition of involving families in the treatment of mentally ill relatives. In 1957, Dr. Vidya Sagar, the then superintendent of Amritsar Mental Hospital, involved the family members of the mentally ill in the management, by allowing them to stay with their patients in open tents pitched in the hospital campus. He showed that the patients recovered fast and were taken back home. Based on this principle, family wards were established in Christian Medical College, Vellore. The benefits were fast recovery, low relapse rates, and family members served as change agents in their community as they identified other patients and guided their family members to approach psychiatric centers for help.[5] This system of utilizing the family in the care of the patient had the additional advantage of relieving the psychiatrically trained staff, particularly nurses and attendants, from routine duties.[6] However, the hospital-based, resource-intensive and infrastructure dependent nature of such programs meant that they were not the most appropriate models to adopt.[7] It was suggested that some culture specific characteristics should be included in the rehabilitation programs to make them more successful in the Indian context e.g. focusing primarily on families of patients, supporting them, helping them cope and easing their burden.[8] Nearly four decades ago, Bhaskaran observed that more than 75% of the patients living in mental hospitals had no contact with any family member.[9] He reported that the burden of care for a chronic illness, the reduced work output of the patient and the stigma attached to mental illness were the main reasons for the "unwanted patient". Gupta et al.[10] report that although 70% of the patients in the Agra Mental Hospital had one or more family members, more than half of them did not have a single visit from a relative in the previous two years. Surveys of the mental hospitals have also shown that large numbers of long-stay patients have practically no contact with the family.[11] Though the General hospital psychiatric units (GHPUs) were started at Bombay and Calcutta way back in 1933, more and more such units and departments started working in 1960s and 1970s. The GHPUs had a number of advantages over the mental hospitals – they were easily approachable without stigma, they encouraged more outpatient care; they attracted more patients with minor mental health problems and helped in the integration of psychiatry into the general health system. Further, from family point of view, the patient always stayed with the family and the family was intimately involved in the care of mentally ill subjects.[4] It is important to remember that over the years with the increase in GHPUs and private sector psychiatric nursing homes and clinics resulting in availability of better treatment options, more and more subjects are treated in their family setup on both outpatient and in-patient basis. This fact is more amply revealed by huge number of research publications based on the various aspects of care giving in various psychiatric disorders. Further, when one talks to these caregivers, it becomes amply clear that the family considers sending the patient to a mental hospital as a last resort of management. The decade of 1970s also saw the primary care approach in the area of mental health.[12] The World Health Organization (WHO) brought out a technical report in 1974 and paved the way for community-mental health program.[13] The noted feasibility studies were conducted in and around Sakalwara village, near Bangalore and Raipur Rani block of Ambala district, Haryana.[1415] Sixty eight experts from the field of mental health, general health and health administration designed the first draft of National Mental Health Program and it was implemented in the country in 1982 with the purpose of promoting community participation in the organization of the services.[16] FAMILY: ADVANTAGES FROM MENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVE The traditional joint family that exists in India is seen as a source of social and economic support and is known for its tolerance of deviant behavior and capacity to absorb additional roles in times of crisis.[1718] Leff et al.[19] have suggested that traditional joint families allow for diffusion of burden in families caring for the mentally ill and could be responsible for mediating the good course and outcome of major mental disorders. Reviews of the role of the family in relation to mental health have found that the nuclear family structure is more likely to be associated with psychiatric disorders than the joint family.[1720] Chandrashekar et al.[21] reported that fewer patients from rural families sought hospitalization when compared to urban families because of the existing joint family structure. Gopinath et al.[22] reported that patients who hailed from larger families and had a better educational status tended to discontinue attending a day hospital facility within three months. Studies have shown that the larger the family, in terms of it being an extended or joint family, the more it was able to compensate for a dysfunctional member in terms of having fewer expectations.[23] A study by Sharma et al.[24] compared schizophrenia patients living in Liverpool, UK and Bangalore, India and found that Bangalore patients were more socially integrated than Liverpool patients, who appeared socially marginalized. Three large-scale international collaborative studies conducted by the WHO-the International Pilot Study on Schizophrenia (IPSS), the Determinants of Outcome of Severe Mental Disorders (DOSMeD) and the International Study of Schizophrenia (ISoS) – convincingly demonstrated that persons with schizophrenia did better in India and other developing countries, when compared to their Western counterparts and much of this has been attributed to good family support these patients enjoyed in developing countries.[25] Thara et al.[26] and Eaton et al.[27] while reporting on a 10-year follow-up of first-episode Indian patients, have also highlighted the importance of early therapeutic interventions, including family interventions, by demonstrating that the prevalence of positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia stabilized in the first two years of the illness. In India, traditional joint family structures, where family members stay together with their spouses and children, have been significantly replaced in urban areas by "new order" nuclear families. More importantly, the family system has become a highly differentiated and heterogeneous social entity in terms of structure, pattern, role relationships, obligations and values. In the context of the transitional changes in the Chinese society, Pearson and Lam[28] observed that "in countries with low income levels and numerous existential stressors, changes in family structure may make the care giving burden even more onerous". ROLE OF FAMILY IN CURRENT MENTAL HEALTH SCENARIO IN INDIA The shift to community-based psychiatric services has formalized the role of the caregiver. The family and caregiver's role has been thus integrated in the treatment plans and in policy making. The role of family becomes even greater in a country like ours with more than one billion people where there is a paucity of trained personnel, with the number of mental health professionals not exceeding 5000. For such a huge population, both settings and service providers are grossly inadequate.[29] It is needless to say that a large part of the mental health care takes place in the community making the family as the primary care provider. This scenario is quite different from what happened in the West, where the locus of care shifted to the community only as a result of the deinstitutionalization movement. Figures with respect to how many patients with schizophrenia stay integrated with their families in India vis-à-vis developed countries like the United Kingdom (UK) and United States of America (USA) speak volumes regarding importance of families in the care of such patients. Two cross-cultural studies reported that less than 50% of patients in the Western world lived with their families, while the comparable figure in India was 98.3%.[2430] In view of the dismal state of mental health infrastructure in India, expecting community care by a team, as in the developed countries, including an array of trained nurses, rehabilitation specialists, cognitive therapists, social workers, occupational therapists and psychiatrists would be impractical. Therefore, in a country like India, the term "community care" often translates into patients remaining outside hospitals, but with their families. So, it appears that the locus of care will continue to be with the family. IMPACT ON FAMILY :THE SILENT SUFFERERS It is important to recognize that the caregivers/family members also pay a huge price to care for their ill relatives. The impact of mental illness on the caregivers has been evaluated in the form of burden, caregiving experience, psychiatric/ psychological morbidity, coping, financial burden, needs, stigma, etc. "Burden of care" is defined as "the presence of problems, difficulties or adverse events which affect the life (lives) of the psychiatric patients' significant others (e.g. members of the household and/or the family)".[31] The concept of 'burden of care' has two distinct components - the objective and the subjective as proposed by Hoenig and Hamilton.[32] Objective burden encompasses measurable effects in household disruptions, economic burden, caregivers' loss of work, social, and leisure roles, and time spent negotiating the mental health, medical, social welfare, and sometimes criminal justice systems. In contrast, subjective burden is the caregiver's own perception of the impact of caring. It consists of the negative psychological impact on the caregiver and includes feelings of loss, depression, anxiety, anger, sorrow, hatred, uncertainty, guilt, shame or embarrassment, all of which result in much distress and suffering.[33–35] Findings of numerous studies across a range of psychiatric disorders indicate that carers of patients with schizophrenia have the highest negative impact, where a substantial majority (30%- 60%) of caregivers suffer significant distress.[36] These studies have also identified the major areas of (objective) burden, namely adverse effects on the household routine including care of children, disruption of relations within and outside the family, restriction of leisure time activities of caregivers, the strains placed on their finances and employment, the difficulties in dealing with dysfunctional and problem behavior faced by caregivers, and the impact on the mental and physical wellbeing of the carers.[3336–40] The prevalence of subjective psychological distress has also been found to be very high, with 29 to 60% of the caregivers judged to be suffering from diagnosable psychiatric disorders across different studies which have used the General Health Questionnaire or similar criteria.[36] Negative caregiving appraisals are associated with higher levels of social impairment and disability, a smaller social network in patients, and with symptoms such as anxiety or depression. However, caregiving not necessarily always has a negative impact. There has been much less research on positive caregiving appraisals. In psychosis, positive caregiving appraisals have been associated with employed patients whose social functioning is better, patients with shorter duration of illness, and caregivers who are more educated and have access to higher levels of social support.[4142] It has been reported that some of the caregivers may feel a sense of satisfaction or gratification. Studies from India have shown that the burden of care of schizophrenia is either similar to or even more than chronic physical disorders.[4344] The amount of burden in schizophrenia has more effect on family than the financial burden.[4546] Other studies suggest that family burden in other psychiatric disorders e.g. bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, substance dependence etc is also comparable to schizophrenia.[47–50] Studies have reported significant burden among caregivers of patients with Alzheimer's disease where majority of the caregivers experienced significant deterioration in their mental health.[51] Indian studies have reported mixed findings with respect to significant impact of the care giving role on the relatives' emotional and physical health. Some studies have reported high level of psychiatric morbidity among family carers, while others have observed that, despite high levels of burden, caregivers reported subjective well-being scores in the normal range.[4252] It has also been found that spouses often take over the breadwinner's role, and other family members, especially children, take over the index patient's responsibilities.[5354] There are very few studies which have evaluated the cost of mental illnesses in India.[55–60] Studies have shown that 95% of the cost of treatment of schizophrenia is borne by the family, which uses about half of its income in the patient's treatment.[58] Studies have also shown that cost of treatment of schizophrenia is similar to the cost of treatment of diabetes mellitus but slightly less than the cost of treatment of bipolar disorders.[5859] Coping strategies of caregivers have been distinguished into two broad groups: problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies. Problem-focused strategies refer to constructive coping efforts undertaken to modify difficult situations and include measures such as problem-solving, seeking information, or using positive methods of communication. In contrast, the less adaptive emotion-focused strategies are attempts at modulating the caregiver's stress-related emotional response by measures such as avoiding or resigning themselves to the situation.[36396162] The most consistent correlates of coping across quite a few studies have been caregiver-burden, patient's social functioning, expressed emotions (EE) of caregivers and social support available for caregivers. High levels of burden, dysfunction, and EE together with low levels of available support have been associated with a number of maladaptive, principally emotion-focused styles such as avoidance, resignation, coercion, etc.[63–66] Indian studies have shown that use of problem-focused coping, seeking social support as a coping strategy have been found to be related to positive caregiving experience.[67] Another study shows that the coping patterns of caregivers of schizophrenia and bipolar disorders are quite alike, though caregivers of patients with schizophrenia used some of the emotion-focused strategies more often than the caregivers of bipolar subjects. It is also reported that the caregiver's gender, patient's level of dysfunction and caregiver-neuroticism have a significant influence on coping patterns.[68] As the treatment in the West is patient-centric, many studies from there have evaluated the needs of patients with schizophrenia and the mean number of needs reported by patients has varied from 5.3 to 7.9.[6970] As per the type of needs, most consistently reported area of needs by the patients in various studies include need for company, food, information, house upkeep/looking after home, daytime activities, psychological distress and intimate relations.[69–74] Studies have also consistently shown that mental health services in the West are unable to meet many of these needs of caregivers. This is contributing to burden and dissatisfaction among caregivers, and resultant decreased use of the available services.[7576] In a recent study from India, Kulhara et al. evaluated the needs of the patients of schizophrenia as perceived by the patients and their family members, and reported that the number of needs of patients as perceived by the caregivers was similar to that perceived by patient's themselves and western data.[77] However, in contrast to the West, where most of the needs of the patients are met, more than two-third needs of schizophrenia patients in Indian setting were unmet. The most commonly reported needs by both patients and their caregivers were need for welfare benefits. Similarly other studies have also shown that the subjects with severe mental illnesses have unmet treatment and rehabilitation needs, need for meaningful employment, or productive activity, the need for practical and emotional support, the need for information about schizophrenia.[2978–80] The findings related to employment, income generation and productive activities are not surprising in a low-income country with negligible welfare and social security benefits, since caring for a non-contributory member adds to the already heavy burden of existential stressors. A recent unpublished study found that in the Indian setting most of the needs in schizophrenia and bipolar patients are met by their family members with minimal help from formal sources.[81] In keeping with trends in the Western literature, family carers from India also have concerns about the well-being of their patient after their lifetime, and want these issues to be addressed by professionals.[528283] However, relatives have been less concerned about information regarding the illness, guidance in dealing with patient etc.[808384] It is well known that stigma affects life of a person with mental illness negatively. It also negatively impacts their family members and relatives. In contrast to the considerable amount of data available on stigmatization of patients, there has been limited exploration of family stigma.[85] Nevertheless, certain themes are evident from research among caregivers of patients with mental illnesses. Family stigma contains the stereotypes of blame, shame, and contamination. Typically, blame is attributed to poor parenting skills, which supposedly lead to mental illness. In turn, family members may experience shame for being blamed for the mental illness. This shame may lead to family members avoiding contact with neighbours and friends. Contamination describes how close association with the stigmatized person might lead to diminished self-worth. Other elements and negative consequences of stigma such as restricted access to all kinds of facilities including healthcare services and discrimination are also shared by patients and caregivers.[86–88] Concerns have been shown about stigma affecting the chances of marriage of the patient, or another member of the family. WHY DOES FAMILY CARE FOR THEIR ILL RELATIVES? A seminal study by Guberman et al.[89] interviewed 40 women caregivers of frail elderly or mentally ill relatives and identified 14 factors, which motivated these women to assume the care giving role. The first and most important group of such factors was associated with the caregiver's material, social, and psychological situation. These included her feelings of closeness and interconnectedness with family, gender-role conditioning, and life situation. These were further elaborated as love, maternal feelings, feelings of family ties, feelings of obligation, resignation and guilt, a profound need to help others, socioeconomic dependence, belief in the healing process, religious or anti-institutional convictions, personal characteristics, and family tradition. An old study which assessed families of 60 patients with chronic schizophrenia undergoing treatment with drug and social therapies found that many of these families maintained an active interest in the patients and expressed their desire to continue visits to the hospital. Their attitude towards the patient's illness was optimistic and many families favored discharge. Their expectations were realistic and in accord with patient's capacities.[90] Further, some studies have also reported experiences of gains in caregivers of schizophrenia. In a study, about 70% of the caregivers reported that they had become more sensitive to persons with disabilities. More than 50% reported that caring for their relative helped them greatly to clarify their priorities in life and engendered a greater sense of inner strength.[91] ROLE OF FAMILY IN MENTAL DISORDER: CAUSATIVE, PROPAGATIVE, PRECIPITATIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY ROLES Family has attracted the attention of various researchers in the area of psychiatry to determine the "mysterious" etiopathogenesis of various behavioral disorders. The structure, size, socio-economic status of family, the state of emotional health of family members, education, religion and migratory status of families have been observed to be related to various specific psychiatric illnesses. In this context, researchers have also tried to define dysfunctional families. A dysfunctional family is a family, in which conflict, misbehavior and even abuse on the part of individual members of the family occur continually and regularly, leading other members to accommodate such actions. Dysfunctional families are most often a result of the alcoholism, substance abuse, or other addictions of parents, parents' untreated mental illness or personality disorders, or the parents emulating their own dysfunctional parents and dysfunctional family experiences. Symptoms and signs of family dysfunction include inconsistency and unpredictability, role reversals ("parentifying" children), "closed family system" (a socially isolated family that discourages relationships with outsiders), "dogmatic or chaotic parenting" (harsh and inflexible discipline), depriving parents (parents who control by withholding love, money, praise, attention, or anything else their child needs or wants), stifled speech (children not allowed to dissent or question authority). Fromm-Reichmann's (1948) theory of 'schizophrenogenic mother' stated that schizophrenia is due to unconscious rejection of mother for her child, whereas according to the 'Double Bind Hypothesis', conflicting communication within the family creates schizophrenia, which is seen as a learned communication pattern. Schizophrenia was believed to be due to living in families in which there is severe emotional conflict (Marital Schism and Skew) or caused by communication problems in family (Transactional Thought Disorder). A review of studies reveals that psychoneurotic and depressed patients are overrepresented in the unitary and small-sized families, whereas hysteria is observed more commonly in females from joint families. The reason being that in a unitary family there is lesser dilution and fewer opportunities for sharing of emotion, particularly in times of stress which leads to swelling of emotions, in turn leading to formation of a nidus for subsequent precipitation in the form of depression. On the other hand, in the 'restrictive' environment of the joint family, women are expected to observe more restraint, all must be subject to command of the 'elders', which leads to interpersonal maladjustment. Hysterical manifestations ma