Powerful State, Powerless Mediator: The United States and the Peace Efforts of the Palestine Conciliation Commission, 1949–51
2011; Routledge; Volume: 33; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/07075332.2011.595245
ISSN1949-6540
AutoresStian Johansen Tiller, Hilde Henriksen Waage,
Tópico(s)Middle East Politics and Society
ResumoAbstract The Arab–Israeli War of 1948 produced complex questions that needed to be solved to obtain peace. Whereas the Arab states suffered humiliating defeats, Israel was the undisputed winner, expanding and solidifying its power. For the Palestinians, the outcome was catastrophic. Between 600,000 and 760,000 Palestinians fled, becoming refugees on the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and in surrounding Arab states. Palestinian society collapsed and Palestine became divided between Israel, Egypt, and Jordan, leaving the borders undecided. The Palestinians’ dreams of statehood were crushed. After the war, Israel used diplomacy to achieve its goals, defending the post-war status quo to preserve its expanded territory and resisting the return of Palestinian refugees. Through its membership in the Palestine Conciliation Commission (PCC), established by the United Nations (UN) in 1948 to solve these problems, the United States was deeply involved in the negotiations. The United States became the informal, yet undisputed leader of the PCC, thus, it would seem, empowering it with the muscles of a superpower. After three years of struggling for peace the PCC had toadmit failure. Knowledge about these negotiations gives important insights into how mediators approached the conflict and shows that power asymmetry may explain why the belligerents could not obtain peace. Keywords: United StatesUnited Nationspeace processPalestineIsrael Notes 1. A. Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York, 2000), 28–41; J. Jensehaugen and H. Henriksen Waage, ‘Coercive Diplomacy: Israel, Transjordan and the UN – A Triangular Drama Revisited’, British Journal of Middle East Studies, forthcoming (2011); D. Tal, War in Palestine 1948: Strategy and Diplomacy (London and New York, 2004), 458–61. 2. B. Thomas, How Israel Was Won: A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Lanham and Oxford, 1999), 89; Shlaim, The Iron Wall, 47–61. 3. S. Johansen Tiller, ‘Defending the UN Agenda: The Peace Effort of the Palestine Conciliation Commission, 1949–1951’, (MA thesis, Oslo University, 2009). 4. D.P. Forsythe, United Nations Peacemaking: The Conciliation Commission for Palestine (Baltimore and London, 1972), 37. 5. Tiller, ‘Defending the UN Agenda’, 27–8, 33, 42–3, 46–9, 54–6, 58–60, 62–3, 68–72, 74–8, 81–94, 97–123. 6. See for instance: B. Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (Cambridge, 2004), 549–87; P.L. Hahn, Caught in the Middle East: U.S. Policy Toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1945–1961 (Chapel Hill and London, 2004), 86–90; Shlaim, The Iron Wall, 57–62; A. Shlaim, Collusion Across the Jordan: King Abdullah, The Zionist Movement, and the Partition of Palestine (Oxford, 1988), 461–88; I. Rabinovich, The Road Not Taken: Early Arab-Israeli Negotiations (New York and Oxford, 1991), 24–8. 7. Forsythe, United Nations Peacemaking. 8. R.E. Gabbay, A Political Study of the Arab-Jewish Conflict: The Arab Refugee Problem (A Case Study) (Geneva and Paris, 1959). 9. N. Caplan, Futile Diplomacy Vol. III: The United Nations, The Great Powers, and Middle East Peacemaking 1948–1954 (London and Portland, 1997). 10. This article is part of an ongoing project tracing the failure of early Middle East diplomacy. See Jensehaugen and Waage, ‘Coercive Diplomacy’; H. Henriksen Waage, ‘The Winner Takes All. The Island of Rhodes Revisited: Israeli-Egyptian Armistice Negotiations, 1949’, Middle East Journal, 8 (2011), 279–304. 11. Shlaim, The Iron Wall, 50; minutes, American section of the executive of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, 28 July 1949, C[entral] Z[ionist A[rchives, Jerusalem] Z5/63. 12. Ben-Gurion quoting Abba Eban in Morris, The Birth, 577; See also minutes, American section of the executive of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, 28 July 1949, CZA Z5/63. 13. Shlaim, Collusion Across the Jordan, 465–6. 14. A. Shlaim, ‘Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948’, in E.L. Rogan and A. Shlaim (eds), The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948. (Cambridge, 2001), 82; Rabinovich, The Road Not Taken, 14–17; Observations Regarding the Meetings Between the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine and the Arab Commission for Palestine and the Arab Governments, to be Held in Beirut on 21 March 1949, 12 March 1949, U[nited] N[ations Archives], A/AC.25/W/2. 15. H. Henriksen Waage, Peacemaking is a Risky Business: Norway's Role in the Peace Process in the Middle East, 1993–96 (Oslo, 2004), 5. 16. See e.g., S, Touval, ‘Biased Intermediaries: Theoretical and Historical Considerations’, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, i (1975); S. Touval, The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948–1979 (Princeton, NJ, 1982); S. Touval and I.W. Zartman (eds), International Mediation in Theory and Practice (Boulder, 1985); S.Touval and I.W. Zartman, ‘Mediation in International Conflicts’, in K. Kressel and D.C. Pruitt, Mediation Research (San Francisco, CA, 1989); S. Touval, Mediation in the Arab–Israeli Conflict During and After the Cold War (Jerusalem, 1999); I.W. Zartman and S. Touval, ‘International Mediation After the Cold War’, in C. Crocker and F.Hampson (eds), Managing Global Chaos (Washington, 1996); J. Bercovitch and A.Houston, ‘Influence of Mediator Characteristics and Behavior on the Success of Mediation in International Relations’, International Journal of Conflict Management, iv(1993),; A. Kydd, Mediation, Preferences and Credibility (Unpublished manuscript, Department of Political Science, University of California, 2000). 17. Waage, Peacemaking is a Risky Business, 5–6. 18. Palestine – Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator, 11 Dec. 1948, UN A/RES/194(III). 19. Progress report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine submitted to the Secretary-General for transmission to the members of the United Nations, 16 Sep. 1948, UN A/648. 20. Secretary of State Dean Acheson to Mr. Mark F. Ethridge, 19 Jan. 1949, in F[oreign] R[elations of the] U[nited] S[tates] 1949 [The Near East, South Asia and Africa (Washington, 1977)], vi. 681–3. The same view is expressed in Washington to Foreign Office, 1 March 1949 [Kew, United Kingdom National Archives, Public Records Office], F[oreign] O[ffice records] 371/75348. 21. Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, Assistant Secretary of State, Moshe Sharett, Foreign Minister of Israel, memcon, 5 April 1949, N[ational] A[rchives, College Park, USA], LM 187/11–106; Waage, ‘The Winner Takes All’. 22. Burdett to Acheson, 8 Feb. 1949, NA RG 59, 501.BB Palestine, box 2123. 23. Shlaim, The Iron Wall, 56–8. 24. Palestine – Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator, 11 Dec. 1948, UN A/RES/194(III), see paragraph 11. 25. 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Porter to Acheson, 6 Aug. 1949, NA RG 59, 501 BB.Palestine, box 2126. 123. Porter to Acheson, 2 Aug. 1949, NA RG 59, 501 BB.Palestine, box 2126. 124. Kattan, From Coexistence to Conquest, 223. 125. Porter to Acheson, 4 Aug. 1949, NA RG 59, 501 BB.Palestine, box 2126. See also minutes, American section of the executive of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, 28 July 1949, CZA Z5/63. 126. Truman quoted in Morris, The Birth, 574. 127. Acheson to the US Embassy, Tel Aviv, 19 Aug. 1949, NA RG 59, 501 BB.Palestine, box 2126. 128. Memo by McGhee to Webb [annex 2], 15 March 1949, FRUS, 1949, vi. 831. 129. Jalal al-Husseini, ‘UNRWA and the Palestinian Nation-Building Process’, Journal of Palestine Studies, xxix (2000), 52–3. 130. Minutes, American section of the executive of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, 28 July 1949, CZA Z5/63. 131. ‘Tripartite Declaration Regarding the Armistice Borders: Statement by the Governments of the United States, The United Kingdom, and France, May 25, 1950’, UnitedNations Information System on the Question of Palestine, available at http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/3EF2BAA011AD818385256C4C0076E724 (Accessed 2 August 2010). 132. ‘Tripartite Declaration Regarding the Armistice Borders: Statement by the Governments of the United States, The United Kingdom, and France, May 25, 1950.’ 133. General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, 23 Oct. 1950, UN A/1367/Rev.1. 134. General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, 23 Oct. 1950, UN A/1367/Rev.1. 135. General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, 23 Oct. 1950, UN A/1367/Rev.1; Forsythe, United Nations Peacemaking, 81–3. 136. Morris, The Birth, 577; Shlaim, The Iron Wall, 51–2. 137. British Embassy, Jedda to Ernest Bevin, 23 Feb 1949, FO371/75348. Additional informationNotes on contributorsStian Johansen Tiller The authors would like to thank historian Jørgen Jensehaugen at the University of Oslo for valuable comments on the text, analytical insights and assistance with some of the archival material.
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