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“His Soul Was Wandering and Holy”: Employing and Contesting Religious Terminology in Django Fandom

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 36; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03007766.2013.798547

1740-1712

Siv B. Lie,

Gender, Feminism, and Media

Abstract Can one speak of fandom in terms of religion? While some studies of fandom make explicit connections between fandom and religion, others discredit these comparisons for multiple reasons. But, before any comparison can be made or refuted, one must interrogate what is meant by "religion" and the associated terminology. This article will present some aspects in which the community of Jean "Django" Reinhardt fans may resemble religious worshippers, and, in doing so, will demonstrate the plurality of meanings possible for such terminology. My main question is not whether fandom actually constitutes religion, but what the ramifications of such a comparison are. How does the usage of religious discourse influence how fan identities are constructed by themselves and by others? How do fans use religious terminology in describing their beliefs and practices? Why do observers recognize some fan behaviors as religious? Following Sandvoss's admonition "to acknowledge the difference between references to religion in fandom and fandom as religion" (62), I will examine aspects of Django fandom that may be seen as having religious connotations and discuss these implications. My investigation addresses primarily fans' own uses of religious terminology and their reactions to being characterized as "cultish." The debates surrounding the "cult" status of Djangophiles point to how the use of religious terminology risks misrepresenting the practices and beliefs of particular cultural groupings. At the same time, it is a potent means for fans to express the intensity of their experiences by analogy. This is why researchers must focus on fans' own usages of language to better understand the psychological and cultural dimensions of fandom. Notes [1] Psychological experiments that measure the presence of a "worshipper personality" hypothesized as common to both religious people and devoted fans remain inconclusive (CitationMaltby et al. ; CitationReysen). [2] I use "Manouches" to refer to a collectivity of Romanies (also known, more colloquially but less accurately, as "Gypsies") who reside primarily in France. Manouches differ from other "Gypsy" groups in France as they have been settled since the second half of the 19th century and often claim ethnic lineage from the Roma who migrated from north-west India around the 11th century (as opposed to, for example, Romani migrants from other parts of Europe). [3] Djangomania! was made by Studio 7 Productions and is available on DVD. [4] Greil and Rudy take a tentative approach to using "religion" by designating a realm of "quasi-religious" behavior: "The term 'quasi-religion' could be used to refer to activities and organizations that involve expressions of ultimate concern or organizational dynamics similar to those of religious organizations narrowly defined (that is, functionally defined) but that do not involve a belief in the supernatural or super-empirical. Employing the term in this way, running and the pursuit of health could both be described as quasi-religious in character.…Quasi-religions are organizations which either see themselves or are seen by others as 'sort-of' religious" (220–21). [5] I use the term "Gypsy jazz" to articulate a set of stylistic parameters that devoted Djangophiles hold in common. The defining characteristics of the genre derive mainly from the music of Reinhardt and the Quintette du Hot Club de France, specifically with regard to instrumentation, technique, and repertoire: an all-string lineup (usually one lead guitar, two rhythm guitars, a violin, and an upright bass); a distinctively brisk, swinging guitar strumming technique known as la pompe; and a repertoire that combines American jazz standards of the 1930s and '40s with compositions and arrangements by Reinhardt and other Gypsy jazz musicians. Just as the genre of jazz broadly "is subject to conflicting definitions" (Monson Citation15), Gypsy jazz is not a concretely bounded genre but instead a catchall term for a collection of various aesthetic factors contested by some who are labeled or who even self-identify as its musicians. It was only after Reinhardt's death that this term was invented. [6] It is interesting to note that Gypsy jazz spread, in part, because of and along the trails of religious pilgrimages. I have not found evidence, however, of whether this aspect of Gypsy jazz history has any bearing on religious discourse in contemporary Django fandom. [7] For more detailed descriptions of this process in Alsace, see CitationDaval and Hauger; among Manouches generally, see Williams "Un Héritage." [8] It is standard practice in jazz pedagogy to learn the solos of great improvisers note for note. It should not necessarily be considered an obsessive fan practice, but a fundamental element of developing improvisation skills. Most Gypsy jazz performers see Reinhardt's musical utterances as preceding and informing theirs, realizing CitationBakhtin's contention that "every utterance must be regarded as primarily a response to preceding utterances of the given sphere" (91). In most instances, they recognize that Reinhardt did not invent his style from scratch, but that he was heavily influenced by jazz musicians who preceded him and by other musicians in his own community. He is not seen "as someone who produced the original instance sui generis" (Urban, "Entextualization" Citation24), but as an extremely talented assimilator and transformer of previously existing cultural elements. He is considered so brilliant because he "incarnat[ed] various aspects of different kinds of prior expressions, yet seem[ed] to be new" (Urban, Metaculture Citation5). To insinuate that Reinhardt is truly a "god," an original "creator" of Gypsy jazz, ignores the context of his development, which the vast majority of Reinhardt fans explicitly acknowledge. [9] Antonietto and Billard hold that Reinhardt is "at the same time unique and other, himself and his people" (15). Some speculate that Reinhardt's style is derivative of his training in a native Manouche music; others see it as something even more singular, as guitarist Matelo Ferret insists: "one says Gypsy style [guitar], but it's Django style" (qtd in Williams, Django 40). In the former case, Reinhardt is representative of Gypsy/Romani music in general; in the latter, he represents the creative and transformative capabilities of Gypsy/Romani individuals. Both interpretations reflect Reinhardt as a source of pride for those who identify as Gypsy, Romani and/or Manouche. [10] Gadjo (n.m.; n.f. gadji, n.pl. gadjé) is the Romani term for non-Romani person. Pronunciation and orthography vary among dialects of Romani. [11] While many Manouches are not very concerned with what gadjé think of them, others say that the gadjé reception of Reinhardt has been an advantage for their communities. [12] I am hesitant to even name these Romanies as "fans," but under the inclusive definition Sandvoss offers, they qualify as such. [13] For many fans, it is not only Reinhardt's musical brilliance that enchants them, but also tales about his personality. Reinhardt is repeatedly described as childish, temperamental, profligate and reticent, qualities that are often considered concomitant with artistic genius and that provide a charismatic allure. [14] The Sinti are a Romani group closely related to Manouches. Depending on the region and the audience being addressed, a person may refer to him or herself, and to his or her family, as Manouche and/or Sinti. [15] Barré's following remarks highlight the importance of Reinhardt's lineage in Django fandom: "When I'm in front of [renowned guitarist] Boulou Ferré, it's always special. I know he knows the whole story—that's what is interesting about these guys. It is the fact that they know the whole story. Boulou and Elios [Ferré] as Matelo [Ferret's] sons. Matelo used to play with Django! I mean, can you imagine when you're a small child and you talk to your father, and he was one of Django's rhythm players? That's why when you're in Paris, it is special, because you can meet these guys. And these guys, it's true—when you touch them, you can imagine the father who was shaking hands with Django!" [16] For instance, "the ultra orthodox Gypsy jazzers will only play the most traditional stuff on Selmers…the conservative Gypsy jazzers still use the trad. techniques but mix it up with some other stuff (I'd say I fit in the category). And the reform Gypsy jazzers, well, they play Django on Strats and toss in Stevie Ray Vaughn licks over Nuages!" (Horowitz, "Djangomania!"). [17] For Hills, what distinguishes a mere "fan" from a "cult fan" is not the intensity of emotional involvement or the degree of consumption, but "its duration, especially in the absence of 'new' or official material in the originating medium" (Fan Cultures xi). Given that Reinhardt died in 1953 and that his fan base continues to thrive, Django fandom fits his criteria for a "cult" fan base.