The Importance of Europe in the Global Campaign Against Terrorism
2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 18; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/095465590953460
ISSN1556-1836
Autores Tópico(s)Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
ResumoABSTRACT Terrorism and how to respond to it looms large in the current transatlantic debate, with the Europeans often being accused of failing to recognise terrorism as the major strategic issue of the early twenty-first century and thus putting their own security as well as that of others at risk. This is both true and false. It is true in the sense that fifteen years after the end of the Cold War, the Europeans still lack a global strategic vision, never mind how the threat from terrorism might impact upon it. But it is false in the sense that it understates what the Europeans can and are doing to reduce and manage terrorism on a global scale. The article is structured into four sections. The first examines terrorist activity in Europe post-9/11. The second deals with how the Europeans responded to 9/11 collectively within the EU. The third section focuses on what are termed the "outreach" activities of the Europeans via the United National Security Council, G-8, OSCE, NATO, and the European Union. And finally the article concludes that it is this outreach by the Europeans that holds the most promise for effectively countering international terrorism, that the Americans are dependent on this activity, and that the Europeans have to modify their strategic vision in order to deliver more effectively. I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Antionette Turkie in the data collection for this paper. Notes 1. See, for example, J. Stevenson, "How Europe and America Defend Themselves," Foreign Affairs 82, no. 2 (March/April 2003): 75–86. 2. J. Dempsey, "EU terror strategy looks at grievances that fuel it," Financial Times, 24 March 2004, 1. 3. See M. Kaldour, "American Power," International Affairs 71, no. 1 (January 2003): 6. 4. G. Tremlett, "A Better Class of Terrorist," The Guardian, 10 December 2004. 5. "Madrid car bomb explosion injures at least 42." International Herald Tribune, (online) 9 February 2005, http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/02/09/europe/web.0209madrid.html 6. R. Cowan, "Real IRA blamed as bomb kills civilian," The Guardian, 2 August 2002. 7. See D. Pallister, "Car bomb attack foiled in Derry," The Guardian, 16 June 2003 and J. Humphreys, "10 held in raid on suspected dissident IRA training camp," Irish Times, 4 August 2003. 8. T. Delpech, "International terrorism and Europe," Chaillot Paper, No. 56, Paris: Institute for Security Studies, December 2002. 9. F. Butterfield, "Al Qaeda Man Pleads Guilty To Flying With Shoe Bomb," New York Times, 5 October 2002. 10. See "Eight men in court: the charges," Timesonline, 18 August 2004, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article.0,2-1221076,00.html 11. "Turk charged with treason over bombings," The Scotsman, 20 December 2003. 12. See "Explosives found in Russian air crash wreckage," The Guardian, 27 August 2004 and N. Paton Walsh, "Moscow seeks UN resolution to speed extradition in terror cases," The Guardian, 22 September 2004. 13. Two main problems are that while the media do report arrests, they often do not report that individuals were later released without charge or that they were charged with offences unrelated to terrorism—usually immigration or passport irregularities. Second, governments do not always report statistics in these categories. According to The Economist, between September 2001 and January 2003, "around 200 Muslim terrorist suspects have been arrested in Europe—more than in any other region… Some 150 have been arrested in the United States, around 100 in the Middle East, about 50 in North Africa and 40 in Latin America." See "Tackling a Hydra," The Economist, 30 January 2003. 14. H. Williamson, "September 11 terror accomplice jailed for 15 years," Financial Times, 20 February 2003 and P. Finn, "Moroccan Convicted in Sept. 11 Attacks: German Court Delivers Maximum Sentence for Aiding Hamburg Cell," Washington Post, 20 February 2003. See also R. Bernstein, "Germans blame US for Qaeda acquittal," International Herald Tribune, 7 February 2004. 15. S. Morris and J. Wilson, "Al-Qaida money men get 11 years," The Guardian, 2 April 2003. 16. J. Arquilla, D. Ronfeldt, and M. Zanini, "Networks, Netwar and Information-Age Terrorism," in I. Lesser, B. Hoffman, J. Arquilla, M. Zanini, and B. Jenkins, eds., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica CA: RAND, 1999), 39–84. See also B. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press 1999), and J. Stern, The Ultimate Terrorists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999). 17. H. Müller, "Terrorism, proliferation: a European threat assessment," Chaillot Papers, no. 58, Paris: Institute for Security Studies, March 2003: 37–38. 18. See Delpech, (see note 8 above), 16. 19. "Tackling a Hydra," The Economist, 30 January 2003 and Delpech, (see note 8 above). 20. France, for example, was the first country post-9/11 to employ air marshals on Air France flights. 21. For more detail see http://europa.eu.int/comm/110901/index.htm 22. For details see http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_…lg = EN&numdoc = 32002F0475&model = guichett 23. The EU's list is somewhat different from the U.S.' The major difference has been the Europeans' reluctance to add Hezbollah and Hamas to their lists. In September 2003, however, the EU did add Hamas. It should also be noted that the EU's list is a minimum requirement and member states remain able to add others to their national lists. 24. "Terrorist and Financial Intelligence," United States Treasury Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, http://www.treas.gov/offices/enforcement/ accessed 13 February 2005. See also Stevenson (see note 1 above) and J. Winer and T. J. Roule, "Fighting Terrorist Finances," Survival, 44, no. 3, (Autumn 2002): 87–104. 25. R. Watson, "Brussels backs creation of anti-terror czar," The Times, 19 March 2004, 18. See also B. Brogan, "We must fight terrorism together, EU told," The Daily Telegraph, 22 March 2004, 1. 26. I. Black, "Britain urges EU to tighten security: Blunkett calls for common rules on data retention," The Guardian, 19 March 2004, 18. 27. A. Browne and R. Watson, "EU divided over proposal for new anti-terror czar," The Times, 17 March 2004, 4. 28. Declaration on Combating Terrorism, Brussels, 25 March 2004. 29. J. Dempsey and M. Huband, "Big states back idea of 'tsar' to lead war on terrorism EU initiative," Financial Times, 19 March 2004, 9. 30. D. McGrory and R. Ford, "Al-Qaeda cleric exposed as MI5 double agent," The Times, 25 March 2004, 15. 31. See, for example, J. Kurlantzick, "Fear Moves East: Terror Targets the Pacific Rim," Washington Quarterly, 24, no. 1 (Winter 2001). 32. United Nations Security Council, S/RES/1373 (2001) 28 September 2001. 33. The United Nations, S/2001/986, 19 October 2001. 34. United Nations Security Council, S/2004/820, 15 October 2004. 35. http://www.un.org.Docs/sc/committees/1373/INTRO.htm 36. "G8 Foreign Ministers' Progress Report in the Fight Against Terrorism, June 12 2002," accessed via University of Toronto's G8 Information Centre http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/foreign/fm130602b.htm. For full details of the G8 Action Plan see "Building International Political Will and Capacity to Combat Terrorism – A G8 Action Plan," http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigat…mbat_terrorism__a_g8_action_plan.html 37. G7 is the G8 minus Russia. However, Russia endorsed this Action Plan. 38. "Powell Welcomes OSCE Action Plan Against Terrorism, Dec. 4, 2001," web version of Colin Powell's remarks following the OSCE Ministerial Conference, Bucharest, 4 December 2001, accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 39. "OSCE says it can be a valuable resource in fight against terrorism, Sept. 6, 2002," accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 40. "Grossman Says OSCE has made excellent start against Terrorism, Dec. 6, 2002," accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 41. "Annual Report of the Secretary General on Police-Related Activities in 2003," OSCE Office of the Secretary General 11 June 2004, SEC.DOC/2/04/Rev.1, p. 31–32. See also OSCE Magazine, October 2004. 42. "High-level Meeting on Migration and Terrorism Opens in Prague, June 3, 2002," accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 43. At its Prague Summit in November 2002, NATO agreed to a further membership expansion to include the three Baltic Republics plus Bulgaria, Slovenia, Slovakia, and Romania. 44. For full details of contributions see "Fact Sheet: NATO Coalition Contributes to Global War on Terrorism, Oct. 24, 2004" accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 45. "NATO's New Mission is Fighting Terrorism, Robertson Says, June 20, 2002," accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 46. Lord Robertson, "Transforming NATO," NATO Review, http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/issue1/english/art1.html 47. C. Bennett, "Combatting Terrorism," NATO Review, http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/issue1/english/art2.html 48. Bennett, ibid. 49. The Action Plan also allows for the participation of the Mediterranean Dialogue partners in workshops and seminars and in other activities on a case-by-case basis. 50. These headings are Intensify Consultations and Information Sharing, Enhance Preparedness of Combating Terrorism, Impede Support for Terrorist Groups, Enhance Capabilities to Contribute to Consequence Management and Assistance to Partners' efforts against Terrorism. For full details see The Prague Summit and NATO's Transformation: A Reader's Guide (Brussels: NATO, 2002), 87–93. 51. The U.S. and EU members have generally good bilateral relations. The most difficult relationship is with France. But even this relationship is better than those relationships the U.S. enjoys in many other parts of the world. 52. For more detail see "Fact Sheet: Highlights of US-EU Cooperation July 2001-June 2002, June 28 2002" accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 53. See, for example, J. Wright, Terrorist Propaganda (London: Macmillan, 1990). 54. Seville Presidency Conclusions, 21–22 June 2002, Annex V, paragraph 4. 55. See Thessaloniki Presidency Conclusions, 19–20 June 2001, Annex 1. 56. J. Dempsey, "Brussels urges Iran to reform or face bar on trade talks revival," Financial Times, 4 May 2004, 9 and S. Castle, "EU threatens aid cuts in terror crackdown," The Independent, 23 March 2004. 57. On November 4, 2002, during a visit to Brussels Tom Ridge stated "one of the conclusions we drew early on—and I think it's one that our friends in Europe concluded, perhaps before much of the world—was that the reach of terrorism is global, that targets are global in nature, and that at the end of the day the 21st century world needs to find global solutions to global vulnerabilities." "Homeland Security Advisor Ridge in Brussels for EU, NATO meetings – November 4 2002" accessed via http://www.useu.be/Terrorism/EUResponse/ 58. See J. Lindley French, "In the shade of Locarno? Why European Defence is Failing," International Affairs, 78, no. 2 (October 2002): 789–811. 59. L. Freedman, "The Revolution in Strategic Affairs," Adelphi Paper, no. 318, (IISS: OUP, 1998), 10. Additional informationNotes on contributorsJoanne Wright Joanne Wright is Professor of International Relations and Dean of the Faculty of History and Social Science at Royal Holloway, University of London. She has published two books on terrorism and several articles on issues of international and internal security. She is currently editing a special edition of the Journal of Constitutional Studies on re-conceptualising security post-9/11.
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