Nationalism and democracy in post‐communist Central Asia
2004; Routledge; Volume: 5; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/1463136032000168899
ISSN1469-2953
Autores Tópico(s)Russia and Soviet political economy
ResumoAbstract The paper evaluates misconceptions of the so‐called transitologists in terms of the relationship between nationalism and democracy in the post‐Soviet Central Asian context. The analysis looks at only four of the five Central Asian republics: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The paper puts forward two main arguments. First, contrary to the argument by some political scientists that nationalism is compatible with, and indeed is the same as, democracy, the author argues that there is a significant degree of trade‐off between nationalism and democracy. Second, contrary to the transitologists' assumptions that an incipient trend would enforce a regime change from communism to liberal democracy in all post‐communist cases, the author argues that it is indeed nationalism, not liberal democracy, that is the real successor to communism at least in Central Asian countries. The paper provides evidence indicating the pervasiveness of ethnic nationalism and the deficiencies of liberal democracy in post‐Soviet Central Asia. Keywords: nationalismdemocracypoliticsidentitytransitioncentral Asia Notes Francis Fukuyama, 'The End of History', National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18; Francis Fukuyama, The End History and the Last Man (Free Press, New York, 1992). Phillippe Schmitter with Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, vol. 53, no. 1 (Spring 1994), pp. 173–85; Terry Karl and Phillippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, vol. 54, no. 4 (Winter 1995), pp. 965–78; Ghia Nodia, 'How Different are the Postcommunist Transitions?', Journal of Democracy, vol. 7, no. 4 (October 1996), pp. 15–29. See, for example, Schmitter with Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists' and especially Karl and Schmitter 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain'. Ghia Nodia, 'Nationalism and Democracy', Journal of Democracy, vol. 3, no. 4 (October 1992), pp. 3–21. See, for example, T. Rakowska‐Harmstone, 'Chickens Coming Home to Roost: A Perspective on Soviet Ethnic Relations', Journal of International Affairs, vol. 45, no. 2 (Winter 1992), pp. 519–49; Sholomo Avineri, 'The Return to History: The Breakup of the Soviet Union', Brookings Review, no. 10 (Spring 1992), pp. 30–3. Nodia, 'Nationalism and Democracy'. Ellen Commisso, 'Is the Glass Half Full or Half Empty?', Communist and Post‐Communist Studies, vol. 30, no. 1 (1997), pp. 1–21. Adrian Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia', Democratization, vol. 3, no. 3 (Autumn 1996), pp. 306–27. Janis Grobbelaar, 'Afrikaner Nationalism: The End of a Dream?' Social Studies, vol. 4, no. 3 (October 1998), p. 386. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (Verso Press, London, 1983). Robert Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1994), p. 399. Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (University of Nevada Press, Reno, Las Vegas and London, 1991). Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1983), Chapters 2 and 3. Ibid., p. 13. Bruce Parrot, 'Perspectives on Post‐Communist Democratization', in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrot (eds), Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and Caucasus (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997), p. 4. Donald L. Horowitz, 'Democracy in Divided Societies', Journal of Democracy, vol. 4, no. 4 (October 1993), p. 18. Ibid. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, 'Toward Consolidated Democracies', Journal of Democracy, vol. 7, no. 2 (1996), pp. 23–4. Thomas H. Eriksen, 'Ethnic Identity and Ideology', in Thomas H. Eriksen (ed.), Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives (Pluto Press, London, Boulder, CO, 1993), p. 62. Ibid., p. 60. Vicki Hesli, 'Political Institutions and Democratic Governance in Divided Societies', in Robert Grey (ed.), Democratic Theory and Post‐Communist Change (Prentice‐Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ, 1997), p. 190. Nodia, 'Nationalism and Democracy', p. 9. Ibid., pp. 4 and 7, respectively. Hesli, 'Political Institutions and Democratic Governance', p. 191. Annette Bohr, 'The Central Asian States as Nationalizing Regimes', in Graham Smith et al. (eds), Nation‐Building in the Post‐Soviet Borderlands (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998), p. 139. Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. Ileana Ros‐Lehtinen, 'Free Speech in Central Asia', House International Relations, FDCH Congressional Testimony, 18 July 2001, accessible through EBSCO Academic Search Premier Database. John Anderson, 'Elections and Political Development in Central Asia', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, vol. 13, no. 4 (December 1997), pp. 28–53; Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. See, for example, John Anderson, 'Island of Democracy? The Politics of Independence', in John Anderson (ed.), Kyrgyzstan: Central Asia's Island of Democracy? (Harwood Academic, Amsterdam, 1999), pp. 23–63. Strobe Talbott, 'Promoting Democracy and Prosperity in Central Asia', US Department of State Dispatch, vol. 5, no. 19 (9 May 1994), pp. 280–2. Anderson, 'Island of Democracy?', p. 23. Scott Peterson, 'Oasis of Democracy Shrinks', Christian Science Monitor, vol. 92, no. 246 (13 November 2000), pp. 7–10. Quoted in Peterson, 'Oasis of Democracy Shrinks', p. 7. Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. John Anderson, 'Constitutional Development in Central Asia', Central Asian Survey, vol. 16, no. 3 (September 1997), pp. 301–20; Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. Quoted, respectively, in Martha B. Olcott, 'Democratization and the Growth of Political Participation', in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrot (eds), Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and Caucasus (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997), p. 215; Anderson, 'Constitutional Development in Central Asia', p. 26. Horowitz, 'Democracy in Divided Societies', p. 28. Olcott, 'Democratization and the Growth of Political Participation', p. 213. Eugene Huskey, 'An Economy of Authoritarianism? Askar Akaev and Presidential Leadership in Kyrgyzstan' (forthcoming). Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia', p. 311. Ibid. Ibid., p. 312. Ibid. Shukrulla Mirsaidov, 'I Did Not Want the Republic to Be Split in Two', Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 9 July 1992, reprinted in FBIS‐USR‐92‐070, 10 June 1992, p. 82. Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrot, Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994), p. 149. Anderson, 'Elections and Political Development in Central Asia'. Ibid.; Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. William Fierman, 'Political Development in Uzbekistan: Democratization?' in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrot (eds), Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and Caucasus (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997), p. 380. Ibid. Ibid. Adrian Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia', p. 309. Barbara G. Baker, 'Religion Law Jeopardizes Evangelism', Christianity Today, vol. 42, no. 11 (5 October 1998), p. 22. Lucian Kim, 'Uzbeks Try to Blunt Islam's Rise', Christian Science Monitor, vol. 90, no. 250 (20 November 1998), pp. 6–10. BBC Monitoring report of Uzbek Radio second program, 1 May 1998, http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/03/ karimovprof.htm For a fuller account of many other violations against democratic values see US Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1998: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights‐/1998_hrp_report/98hrp_report_toc.html Michael Ochs, 'Turkmenistan: The Quest for Stability and Control', in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrot (eds), Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and Caucasus (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997), p. 312. Anderson, 'Constitutional Development in Central Asia'; Treacher, 'Political Evolution in Post‐Soviet Central Asia'. 'Uzbek Vote Shows Democracy a Rarity in Central Asia', Reuters, 28 January 2002. Agence France‐Presse, 8 January 2002. http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/03/karimovprof.htm Bruce Pannier, 'Central Asia: Elections Fail Democracy Test', RFE/RL, Prague, 31 March 2000, www.rferl.org Smith, National Identity, pp. 82–3. Magash Tatimov, 'I Am One of Those Responsible …', Aq Bosagha, no. 8 (1993), reprinted in FBIS‐SOV‐94‐001, 5 January 1994, pp. 68–72. 'Anavatana Göç Çağrısı', Zaman (20 March 2000). Isabelle Kreindler, 'Multilingualism in the Successor States of the Soviet Union', Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (1997), p. 93, 100, respectively. 'Kazakhstan: Language Law Comes into Force', ITAR‐TASS, 15 July 1997, reprinted in FBIS‐SOV‐97‐196. William Fierman, 'Language and Identity in Kazakhstan: Formulations in Policy Documents 1987–1997', Communist and Post‐Communist Studies, vol. 31, no. 2 (1998), pp. 171–86; Kreindler, 'Multilingualism in the Successor States of the Soviet Union'. Eugene Huskey, 'The Politics of Language in Kyrgyzstan', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 3 (1995), pp. 549–71; Kreindler, 'Multilingualism in the Successor States of the Soviet Union'. William Fierman, 'Problems of Language Law Implementation in Uzbekistan', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 3 (1995), p. 589. See, for example, 'Uzbekistan: Tajiks Write to Newspaper on Language Discrimination', Ovoz‐I Tojik, 26 March 1997, rep. FBIS‐SOV‐97‐087. 'Uzbek Leader Changes Name of Victory Day', Moscow ITAR‐TASS World Service, 9 May 1999, rep. FBIS‐SOV‐1999‐0509. For more symbolic measures taken by these regimes see Shirin Akiner, 'Melting Pot, Salad Bowl, Cauldron?', Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 20, no. 2 (April 1997), pp. 362–98, especially pp. 376–93; Bohr, 'The Central Asian States as Nationalizing Regimes', especially pp. 140–63. Anna Matveeva, 'Democratization, Legitimacy and Political Change in Central Asia', International Affairs, vol. 75, no. 1 (1999), p. 29. Ibid., pp. 29–30. 'US Continues to Promote Human Rights, Democracy in Central Asia, June 27, 2002', State Department's Lorne Craner at June 27 Senate Hearing, 27 June 2002. http://www.usembassy.it/file2002_06/alia/a2062702. htm
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