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Students, Apartheid and the Ecumenical Movement in South Africa, 1960–1975

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 39; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03057070.2013.765693

1465-3893

Ian Macqueen,

African studies and sociopolitical issues

Abstract This article examines ecumenical endeavour and student politics in South Africa in the 1960s and early 1970s to bring into fresh perspective sources of antiapartheid activism. The article explores Christian ecumenical developments in the twentieth century and specifically the crisis point reached in 1960 after the Sharpeville massacre. It turns to discuss the formation of two key black student leaders, Steve Biko and Barney Pityana, in the Eastern Cape and discusses their creation of the black-led South African Students' Organisation (SASO) in 1968. I explore a fraught but productive relationship between the growth of Black Consciousness and a developing commitment to social justice by student Christian organisations. A political culture of dialogue enabled the message of Black Consciousness to be quickly communicated to a broad cross section of progressive political actors in the early 1970s. A prime legacy of the ecumenical endeavour of the 1960s was its emphasis on unity and muting of strict orthodoxy, an approach that facilitated such cooperation. I argue that the theological radicalism of the ecumenical movement provided a reference point from which to understand and come to terms with the challenge of the emergent Black Consciousness movement. Notes *This article was presented at the History Work in Progress seminar, University of Sussex, on 17 February 2011, as well as at the International History Series, George Bell House, University of Chichester, on 22 March 2011. My thanks to the participants in both workshops for their comments, I acknowledge as well the helpful criticism and feedback of the three anonymous reviewers and my doctoral supervisors Saul Dubow and Alan Lester. Funding was provided by the Overseas Research Student Award Scheme through the University of Sussex as well as the European Union, through the CLIOHRES (‘Creating Links and Innovative Overviews for a New History Research Agenda for the Citizens of a Growing Europe’) programme. 1 W.A. Visser 't Hooft, Christians for the Future (London, BBC Publications, 1967), pp. 18–19. 2 ‘The Kairos Document, 1985’, http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kairos-document-1985-0, retrieved on 27 May 2012. 3 For overviews see, T.G. Karis and G.M. Gerhart (eds), From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa 1882–1990. Volume 5 Nadir and Resurgence, 1964–1979 (Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1997), as well as the volumes of the South African Democracy Education Trust, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 1, 1960–1970 (Cape Town, Zebra Press, 2004); The Road to Democracy in South Africa: Volume 2, 1970–1980 (Pretoria, Unisa Press, 2006). 4 D.R. Magaziner, The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977 (Athens, Ohio University Press; Johannesburg, Jacana, 2010). 5 D. Thomas, Christ Divided: Liberalism, Ecumenism and Race in South Africa (Pretoria, Unisa Press, 2002). 6 P. Denis, ‘Seminary Networks and Black Consciousness in South Africa in the 1970s’, South African Historical Journal, 62, 1 (2010), pp. 162–82. 7 J. Brown, ‘An Experiment in Confrontation: The Pro-Frelimo Rallies of 1974’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 38, 1 (March 2012), pp. 5–71. New studies include A. Mngxitama, A. Alexander and N.C. Gibson (eds), Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) and L. Hadfield, ‘Restoring Human Dignity and Building Self-Reliance: Youth, Women and Churches and Black Consciousness Community Development, South Africa, 1969–1977’ (PhD thesis, Michigan State University, 2010). See also B. Khumalo-Seegelken, ‘The Influence of the Ecumenical Movement on the Political Development in Southern Africa’, (forthcoming). 8 R.E. Allen (ed.), The Penguin English Dictionary (London, Penguin Books, 2000). 9 From the Greek oikos, house. Ibid. 10 C. Collins, ‘The Birth of the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa’, WSCF Journal, 1, 2 (1979), p. 27. 11 J.R. Mott, Addresses and Papers of John R. Mott. Volume One: The Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions (New York, Association Press, 1946), p. 3. 12 Ibid., p. 15. Emphasis in the original. 13 C.H. Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865–1955: A Biography (Michigan, Eerdmans, 1955). 14 Mott, Addresses and Papers of John R. Mott. The Student Volunteer Movement, p. 109. 15 G. Setiloane, ‘The Ecumenical Movement in Africa: From Mission Church to Moratorium’, in C. Villa-Vicencio and J.W. De Gruchy (eds), Resistance and Hope: South African Essays in Honour of Beyers Naudé (Grand Rapids, Michigan, Eerdmans, 1985), p. 138. 16 Federation News Sheet (February 1926), cited in ‘Student Movements in South Africa: A Study of Three Student Movements Illustrating Student Problems and the Government's response’, Paper prepared by the Southern Africa Committee of the University Christian Movement, New York, May 1970, http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/misc/stude123.html, retrieved on 23 March 2008. 17 Federation News Sheet (December 1930), cited in ‘Student Movements in South Africa’. 18 ‘Student Movements in South Africa’. 19 A.J. van der Bent (ed.), Breaking Down Walls: World Council of Churches Statements and Actions on Racism, 1948–1985 (Geneva, World Council of Churches Programme to Combat Racism, 1986), p. 24. 20 C. Villa-Vicencio, Between Christ and Caesar: Classic and Contemporary Texts on Church and State (Cape Town, David Philip; Michigan, Eerdmans, 1986), p. 200. 21 J.W. De Gruchy, ‘Grappling with a Colonial Heritage: The English-speaking Churches under Imperialism and Apartheid’, in R. Elphick and R. Davenport (eds), Christianity in South Africa: A Political, Social and Cultural History (Cape Town, David Philip, 1997), p. 162. 22 Cited in E. Castro, ‘Foreword’, in B. Pityana, M. Ramphele, M. Mpumlwana and L. Wilson (eds), Bounds of Possibility: The Legacy of Steve Biko and Black Consciousness (Cape Town, David Philip, 1991; London, Zed Books, 1992), p. vii. 23 Villa-Vicencio, Between Christ and Caesar, p. 200. 24 W.J. Houston, ‘A Critical Evaluation of the University Christian Movement as an Ecumenical Mission to Students, 1967–1972’ (MTh thesis, University of South Africa, 1997), pp. 3–7. 25 Federation News Sheet (July 1961), cited in ‘Student Movements in South Africa’. 26 ‘Student Movements in South Africa’. 27 Ibid. and M. Horrell, A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa: 1967 (Johannesburg, Institute of Race Relations, 1968), p. 12. 28 ‘Student Movements in South Africa’. See also De Gruchy, ‘Grappling with a Colonial Heritage’, p. 164. 29 Ibid. 30 S.S. Maimela, ‘Christian Socialism as Precursor of Liberation Theology’, Journal of Black Theology, 3, 2 (1989), p. 18. For a more critical engagement with Christian Socialism, see J. Cochrane, Servants of Power: The Role of English-Speaking 1903–1930 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1987). 31 A. Wilkinson, The Community of the Resurrection: A Centenary History (London, SCM Press, 1992). 32 R. Boyd, The Witness of the Student Christian Movement: Church Ahead of the Church (London, SPCK, 2007), p. 44. 33 Ibid., p. 45. 34 Maimela, ‘Christian Socialism’, p. 26. 35 De Gruchy, ‘Grappling with a Colonial Heritage’, p. 163. Often referred to as the English-speaking Churches these include the Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Congregational, and Baptist Churches. 36 Thomas, Christ Divided, p. 165. 37 De Gruchy, ‘Grappling with a Colonial Heritage’, p. 163. 38 W.A. Visser 't Hooft, Memoirs (London, SCM Press; Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1973), p. 21. 39 Visser 't Hooft, Christians for the Future, pp. 9–10. 40 Ibid., p. 18. 41 Ibid., p. 24. 42 Thomas, Christ Divided, p. 167. 43 ‘Our Aim’, Pro Veritate, 1, 1 (May 1962), p. 8. 44 F. Chikane, ‘A Critical Examination of the Theology and Praxis of the SACC, 1968–1988’ (MA thesis, University of Natal, 1992), p. 58. 45 For more see the work of Leslie Hadfield, ‘Biko, Black Consciousness, and “the System” eZinyoka: Oral History and Black Consciousness in Practice in a Rural Ciskei Village’, South African Historical Journal, 62, 1 (2010), pp. 78–99. 46 Denis, ‘Seminary Networks and Black Consciousness’, p. 169. 47 X. Mangcu, Biko: A Biography (Tafelberg, Cape Town, 2012), pp. 33–104. 48 Thomas, Christ Divided, p. 93. 49 B. Pityana, ‘Reflections on 30 Years since the Death of Steve Biko: A Legacy Revisited’, 2. National Arts Festival Winter School lecture, 3 July 2007, http://www.unisa.ac.za/contents/about/principle/docs/Steve%20 Biko%20Lecture%202007%20doc%20final%20_2_.pdf, retrieved on 29 January 2009. 50 L. Wilson, Steve Biko (Johannesburg, Jacana, 2011), p. 23. 51 Ibid. 52 S. Biko, I Write What I Like (Johannesburg, Picador Africa, 2004), p. 32. 53 Ibid., p. 33. 54 A. Stubbs, ‘Martyr of Hope’, in Biko, I Write What I Like, p. 176. 55 Ibid. 56 Stubbs, ‘Martyr of Hope’, p. 193. See also Denis, ‘Seminary Networks and Black Consciousness’, p. 169. 57 P. Walshe, Church versus State in South Africa: The Case of the Christian Institute (London, C. Hurst and Company, 1983), p. 132. 58 Stubbs, ‘Martyr of Hope’, p. 189. 59 Ibid., p. 178. 60 Magaziner, The Law and the Prophets, p. 190. 61 Thomas, Christ Divided, pp. xiv–xv. 62 Pityana, ‘Reflections on 30 Years since the Death of Steve Biko’, p. 2. 63 Collins, ‘Birth of the Black Consciousness Movement’, p. 27. 64 University of Witwatersrand Historical Papers (hereafter WHP) A2176/6.5 South African Students' Organisation, Memoranda 1973–1977, ‘Historical Background to SASO’. 65 A. Stubbs, ‘The Story of Nyameko Barney Pityana’, South African Outlook (October 1979), cited in M.R. Maimela, ‘Black Consciousness and White Liberals in South Africa: Paradoxical Anti-Apartheid Politics’ (PhD thesis, University of South Africa, 1999), p. 174. 66 ‘Student Movements in South Africa’. 67 Walshe, Church versus State, p. 81. 68 C.B. Collins, ‘The Ideas of Paulo Freire and an Analysis of Black Consciousness in South Africa’ (PhD thesis, University of Toronto, 1974). 69 Walshe, Church versus State, p. 81. 70 Collins, ‘Birth of the Black Consciousness Movement’, p. 28. 71 Ibid. 72 Walshe, Church versus State, p. 81. 73 Collins, ‘Birth of the Black Consciousness Movement’, p. 26. 74 M. Lobban, White Man's Justice: South African Political Trials in the Black Consciousness Era (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 83. 75 Houston, ‘A Critical Evaluation of the University Christian Movement’, p. 44. 76 Ibid., pp. 46–47. 77 D. Magaziner, ‘Christ in Context: Developing a Political Faith in Apartheid South Africa’, Radical History Review, 99 (Fall 2007), pp. 80–106. See also Magaziner, The Law and the Prophets. 78 SASO Newsletter, (September 1970), p. 15. 79 Ibid., p. 18. 80 For a systematic theological exploration see Allan Boesak's Farewell to Innocence: A Social-Ethical Study on Black Theology and Black Power (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1976). 81 SASO Newsletter (September 1970), p. 19. 82 SASO Newsletter (August 1970), p. 5. 83 Ibid., p. 6. 84 Sunday Times, 9 August 1970. 85 SASO Newsletter (August 1970), p. 5. 86 Ibid., pp. 20–21. 87 Ibid., p. 5. 88 Ibid., p. 7. 89 For more detail, see Magaziner, The Law and the Prophets. 90 S. Rakoczy, Regional Report: South Africa, Catholic Theology Worldwide: Regional Reports (30 January 2004), http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/INSeCT/wwide/southafrica-rakoczy.html, retrieved on 29 July 2009. 91 C. Glaser, ‘‘We Must Infiltrate the Tsotsis’: School Politics and Youth Gangs in Soweto, 1967–1976’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 24, 2 (1998), p. 303. C. Glaser, Bo-Tsotsi: The Youth Gangs of Soweto, 1937–1976 (Oxford, James Currey, 2000). 92 Information drawn from Anglican Students' Federation website, http://www.anglicanstudentsfed.org.za, retrieved on 20 January 2012. 93 Church of the Province of South Africa Archives (hereafter CPSA), Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand, AB1626/ C1 ASF (Anglican Students' Federation) Correspondence, Letter from G. Muller to B. Pityana, 1970/71? Re minutes/finances. The Cullen Library archive records on ASF and NCFS are meagre, with just one box containing records for both organisations from 1970 to 1983. 94 CPSA AB1626/ F, ASF Miscellaneous 1962, 1968–1970, F. Wilson ‘Les Mains Sales’, ASF Newsletter, 1963. 95 Emphasis in the original. 96 CPSA AB1626/ C1 ASF Correspondence, Letter to ‘Mike’ from Stephen Hayes, 16 August 1973. 97 For more on the role of the Anglican Church see B. Clarke, Anglicans against Apartheid, 1936–1996 (Pietermaritzburg, Cluster Publications, 2008). 98 CPSA AB1626/ E, ASF Talks 1969–74, A. Barker, ‘Decolonising the Missions’, Address to ASF Annual Conference, 3 July 1974, p. 2. 99 A. Egan, ‘Catholic Intellectuals’, in J. Brain and P. Denis (eds), The Catholic Church in Contemporary South Africa (Pietermaritzburg, Cluster Publications, 1999), p. 320. 100 C. Collins, ‘Pax Romana’, South African Outlook (July 1967), p. 110. 101 M. Horrell, A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa: 1967 (Johannesburg, South African Institute of Race Relations, 1968), p. 280. Of this total, 434 students were enrolled at Fort Hare, 537 students at Turfloop, 341 students at Ngoye and 133 students at Natal. 102 Collins, ‘Pax Romana’, p. 110. 103 Minutes of 43rd Annual Students Assembly, National Union of South African Students, Grahamstown, 3–10 July 1967, BC 586 Manuscripts and Archives Department, University of Cape Town Library, http://www.aluka.org, retrieved on 10 September 2009. 104 Cited in B. Kline, ‘The National Union of South African Students: A Case-Study of the Plight of Liberalism, 1924–1977’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 23, 1 (1985), p. 142. 105 WHP A2675/926 University Christian Movement, ‘Christian Student Organization in Southern Africa’, article submitted to the Pax Romana Journal [late 1967?], pp. 2–3. 106 A. Egan, ‘The Politics of a South African Catholic Student Movement, 1960–1987’, Communications, 20 (1991), p. 65. 107 P. Denis, The Dominican Friars in Southern Africa: A Social History, 1557–1990 (Leiden, Brill, 1998), p. 262. 108 CPSA AB1626/G, President's Report, Minutes of NCFS Executive Meeting, St. Aidan's, Grahamstown, 31 August–1 September 1974, Vice-President's Report, pp. 1–2. 109 Katutura (April/May 1975), p. 1. 110 M. Horrell, A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa: 1969 (Johannesburg, South African Institute of Race Relations, 1970), p. 257. 111 CPSA AB1626/G, Katutura Editor's Report, ‘Minutes of NCFS Executive Meeting, St. Aidan's, Grahamstown, 31 August–1 September 1974’, p. 3. 112 D. Barry, ‘No Abiding Place of Rest’, Katutura (April/May 1975), p. 1. 113 Egan, ‘The Politics of a South African Catholic Student Movement’, p. 71. 114 Ibid., p. 69. 115 M. Horrell and D. Horner, A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa: 1973 (Johannesburg, Institute of Race Relations, 1974), pp. 342 and 344. 116 CPSA AB1626/G, ASF Cathsoc, NCFS Press statement, 1 May 1973. In 1974 the SACC National Conference at Hammanskraal outside Pretoria, issued a Resolution on Conscientious Objection that condemned South Africa's war in Angola and called on white Christians to refuse conscription. 117 Ecunews Bulletin, 22 (16 July 1975), p. 3. 118 Ibid., p. 3. 119 A. Nolan, ‘The Option for the Poor in South Africa’, in Villa-Vicencio and de Gruchy, Resistance and Hope, pp. 190–91. Emphasis in the original. 120 Ibid., p. 190. Emphasis in the original. 121 Ecunews Bulletin, 22 (16 July 1975), p. 4. 122 Egan, ‘The Politics of a South African Catholic Student Movement’, p. 78.