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Fighting decision fatigue

2012; Wiley; Volume: 71; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1002/ana.23531

1531-8249

Adam F. Stewart, Donna M. Ferriero, S. Andrew Josephson, Daniel H. Lowenstein, Robert O. Messing, Jorge R. Oksenberg, S. Claiborne Johnston, Stephen L. Hauser,

Mental Health Research Topics

Annals of NeurologyVolume 71, Issue 1 p. A5-A15 Message from the EditorFree Access Fighting decision fatigue Adam F. Stewart, Adam F. StewartSearch for more papers by this authorDonna M. Ferriero MD, Donna M. Ferriero MDSearch for more papers by this authorS. Andrew Josephson MD, S. Andrew Josephson MDSearch for more papers by this authorDaniel H. Lowenstein MD, Daniel H. Lowenstein MDSearch for more papers by this authorRobert O. Messing MD, Robert O. Messing MDSearch for more papers by this authorJorge R. Oksenberg PhD, Jorge R. Oksenberg PhDSearch for more papers by this authorS. Claiborne Johnston MD PhD, S. Claiborne Johnston MD PhDSearch for more papers by this authorStephen L. Hauser MD, Stephen L. Hauser MD EditorsSearch for more papers by this author Adam F. Stewart, Adam F. StewartSearch for more papers by this authorDonna M. Ferriero MD, Donna M. Ferriero MDSearch for more papers by this authorS. Andrew Josephson MD, S. Andrew Josephson MDSearch for more papers by this authorDaniel H. Lowenstein MD, Daniel H. Lowenstein MDSearch for more papers by this authorRobert O. Messing MD, Robert O. Messing MDSearch for more papers by this authorJorge R. Oksenberg PhD, Jorge R. Oksenberg PhDSearch for more papers by this authorS. Claiborne Johnston MD PhD, S. Claiborne Johnston MD PhDSearch for more papers by this authorStephen L. Hauser MD, Stephen L. Hauser MD EditorsSearch for more papers by this author First published: 24 January 2012 https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23531Citations: 13AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat The Annals of Neurology is a busy place these days. New submissions have increased more than 15% compared with last year, our impact factor is at an all-time high, and as advances in translational neuroscience continue to gain momentum, the future prospects for the journal are bright indeed. Although we are delighted with these trends, we'd be remiss not to acknowledge that success has brought with it a substantial increase in our editorial workload and especially in the number of papers that require a "thumbs-up" or "thumbs-down" decisions each day. For us, the Annals is a cherished endeavor, but we also have day jobs. This prompts an obvious question: as our editorial workload increases, are we at greater risk for bad decision-making? The cognitive processes of decision-making are complex and fraught with bias. In a new book, Willpower – Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength, social psychologist Roy Baumeister, in collaboration with New York Times columnist John Tierney, describes one theoretical source of bias called "decision fatigue."1 In summary, they postulate that human beings have a limited reserve of stamina for decision-making that depletes gradually throughout the day as we navigate our lives. Every day, each of us continually makes decisions ranging in impact and importance – from the simple choice of what to eat for breakfast to more complicated decisions that can have significant impact on our wellbeing, health or financial security. Decisions made by physicians, by study-sections, or by admissions committees are by no means immune to decision fatigue, and indeed, the threat of decision fatigue may be especially salient for all those in positions of power. In one remarkable example cited by Baumeister and Tierney, a study of more than 1,000 decisions made by eight Israeli parole judges in 2009 found that the chance of receiving parole was 65% at the beginning of each session, but declined to less than 10% by the end; following breaks for sandwiches and fruit, success rates returned to 65%! According to Baumeister, decision fatigue can lead to difficulty making trade-offs as we weigh the pros and cons of various choices, leading to impulsivity, inadequate self-control, decision paralysis and ultimately poor decisions. In keeping with our annual tradition of self-examination, this Message from the Editor is dedicated to understanding whether decision fatigue might be similarly entering into our editorial process. As described previously, the Annals employs a multi-tiered decision process whereby the editors make an initial decision about the suitability of a manuscript for consideration (i.e. whether to send the manuscript for peer review or to reject the manuscript outright on the basis of unsuitability or overall priority), and a later decision about which peer reviewed manuscripts should be published. Overall, approximately two-thirds of submissions are rejected in-house, and half of those sent for peer review are ultimately rejected. Each new submission is assigned to a single editor based on his or her area of expertise, and all editors check their in-boxes frequently throughout the week. On a given day, an editor may have as few as 1 or as many as 10 new submissions to evaluate for suitability. Each manuscript requires a decision either to reject outright, or to send for external peer review. Needless to say, the editors approach each day's assignments with gusto; however, we must be open to the possibility that the size of the day's queue could influence the outcome of the initial screening process. The decision fatigue hypothesis suggests that one might expect to see an increase in rejections without peer review whenever an editor has many new submissions to evaluate. As shown in Table 1, 70% of 381 manuscripts were rejected without review when editors were deciding on 3 or more manuscripts in a given day compared to 64% of 518 manuscripts when fewer were reviewed (p=0.019). Although the difference is not large, it does suggest that editors are tougher (possibly grumpier?) when they are faced with more decisions. At this early in-house stage of adjudication, one could argue that the risk for making the wrong decision is small. If a weak manuscript is sent for peer review, it is still likely to be rejected following review by external referees. Also, for some strong manuscripts, a decision to reject without peer review can be overridden by the editor-in-chief. Thus, a number of checkpoints exist within the system to support an initial review process that is as fair as possible. Every Friday, the editors of the Annals convene for a round-table discussion of all manuscripts that have returned from peer review during the week; importantly, we are well-fed as we begin this weekly task. Each Associate Editor is responsible for presenting the manuscripts that he or she has shepherded through peer review, and for summarizing the various pros and cons identified by the referees. In many cases, the group discussion of a manuscript generates additional concerns and queries beyond those raised by the referees. The number of papers discussed at a single meeting varies from week-to-week, ranging from as few as 10 during the summer and holiday months, when referees are more often tardy or reluctant to volunteer for activities such as peer review, to as many as 40 manuscripts during more productive months. As shown in Table 2, when many manuscripts (more than 10) are discussed, fewer are sent for revision, more are accepted, more are rejected, and the editors are more likely to put off reaching a decision (decision paralysis). Taken together, these may be signs of decision fatigue. The decision to ask for a revised manuscript is arguably the most difficult one that we face. We try not to invite authors to revise a manuscript when it seems unlikely that they will be able to address the concerns of the referees adequately. It is especially painful to reject a manuscript after inviting the authors to revise, and although we state explicitly in our decision letter that an invitation to revise is not a guarantee of eventual acceptance, as authors ourselves, we know the expectation is that an invitation to revise a manuscript indicates that it is likely to be on the path toward eventual publication. The observed decline in decisions to invite revisions when many manuscripts are discussed at a single meeting may indicate a breakdown in decision stamina. Decisions to accept or reject are perhaps the easiest decisions to reach because these manuscripts have already been peer reviewed. The Annals never accepts a manuscript without revisions, and almost never without undergoing a second round of peer review; every manuscript that is accepted has already been reviewed and discussed at least once by the editors in a prior meeting, mitigating the risk of publishing something we might later regret. When fewer manuscripts are discussed, the editors are also more likely to raise additional queries for authors to address in further revisions beyond those already raised by the referees, which could explain why a smaller percentage of manuscripts are accepted during meetings with fewer papers to discuss. On the other hand, when the day's workload is high, the increase in rejections may represent a default to the least risky decision, another established symptom of decision fatigue.3 In today's world of continually shrinking resources and increasing responsibilities, the problem of decision fatigue is likely to worsen. As editors, we strive to remain self-critical, and we encourage authors to challenge our decisions when they believe firmly that we are wrong. Although we cannot guarantee that we will see eye-to-eye in most instances, we can promise that reasonable arguments will be considered carefully. Clearly, our greatest defense against decision fatigue and generally poor judgment are the reviews provided by many of you in the past year. Without your expertise and commitment, the Annals could not exist. A special thanks to each of you, listed in the Appendix. Table 1. Rate of Rejection without Peer Review for New Submissions Vetted by Individual Editors in a Single day Table 2. Decisions for Peer-Reviewed Manuscripts Discussed at Weekly Editorial Meetings (Minimum Number of Papers Discussed at a Friday Meeting = 10, Maximum = 40, Average = 24) § The editors apologize for any errors of omission as we are able to acknowledge only the primary reviewers who were invited and assigned to review a manuscript and not those who may have assisted with reviews. The names printed appear as they have been entered in our ScholarOne Manuscripts system. If your name does not appear properly, please make the necessary corrections to your account information at: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ana Appendix The following individuals served as peer reviewers for the Annals of Neurology in 2011.§ Aasheim, Erlend Tuseth Aasly, Jan Abeliovich, Asa Abrams, Gary Adams, Harold Adeyemo, A. Aebischer, Patrick Agid, Yves Ahlskog, J. Aisen, Paul Akaaboune, Mohammed Akassoglou, Katerina Alberts, Mark Albin, Roger Al-Chalabi, Ammar Aldskogius, Håkan Alkayed, Nabil Alldredge, Brian Alley, Dawn Alonso, Alvaro Alves, Guido Amarenco, Pierre Amato, Anthony Aminoff, Michael Andersen, Julie Angelini, Corrado Antel, Jack Aoki, Masashi Arenillas, Juan Francisco Arezzo, Joseph Arnold, Douglas Aronowski, Jaroslaw Ascherio, Alberto Avoli, Massimo Ay, Hakan Back, Stephen Badjatia, Neeraj Baehring, Joachim Balcer, Laura Ballabh, Praveen Baloh, Robert Bankiewicz, Krystof Baraban, Scott Baram, Tallie Z. Baranzini, Sergio Barber, Mark Barber, Philip Barkhof, Frederik Barkovich, A. Barks, John Barnes, Deborah Barone, Frank Bar-Or, Amit Barres, Ben Bartlett, Selena Baumann, Christian Beal, Flint Beck, Heinz Beeson, David Beggs, Alan Beghi, Ettore Bennett, Gary Bennett, Jeffrey Ben-Nun, A. Berg, Anne Berger, Joseph Berger, Mitchel Bergeron, Marcelle Bergey, Gregory Bernard, Christophe Bernard, Timothy Bernasconi, Pia Bertram, Lars Bethea, John Beyer, MK Bezard, Erwan Bidichandani, Sanjay Bigger, Brian Biller, Jose Biran, Valerie Bizzi, Alberto Blackman, James Blackstone, Craig Blalock, Eric Blankenhorn, Elizabeth Bleck, Thomas, P Blennow, Kaj Blum, David Blum, Kenneth Bodensteiner, John Boeve, Bradley Bogousslavsky, Julien Bonci, Antonello Booth, David Borlongan, Cesario Borsook, David Bosco, Daryl Bosetti, Francesca Bower, James Boxer, Adam Bradl, Monika Brady, Cheryl Brais, Bernard Bredesen, Dale Brenner, Talma Brinkmann, Volker Brody, David Bromley, Rebecca Brooks-Kayal, Amy Bruck, Wolfgang Bruno, Askiel Brust, John Buchhalter, Jeffrey Buckmaster, Paul Buckwalter, Marion Budden, Sarojini Burgess, Robert Burns, Jeffrey Burns, Ted Bush, Ashley Cai, Huaiban Cairncross, J. Cairns, Nigel Calabresi, Paolo Calabresi, Peter Camicioli, Richard M. Campion, Dominique Capelle, Laurent Caplan, Louis Cappa, Stefano Cardoso, Sandra Carmichael, S. Carroll, Jame Carter, Alexandre Carter, Chris Centonze, Diego Chabriat, Hugues Chalk, Colin Chan, Jonah Chan, Pak Chance, Phillip Chang, Edward Chang, Hsueh-Wen Checkoway, Harvey Cheetham, Mike Chemtob, Sylvain Chen, Honglei Chen, Jun Chetelat, Gael Chiba, K. Chinnery, Patrick Chiriboga, Claudia Chitnis, Tanuja Choi, Doo-Sup Cilio, Maria Roberta Clarke, Jennifer Clarkson, Andrew Cleveland, Don Clifford, David Cloyd, James Cohen, Adam Cohen, Jeffrey Cohen, Leonardo Cohen, Ronald Cohn, Ronald Colbourne, Frederick Collins, Steven Comabella, Manuel Comi, Giancarlo Connolly, Anne Connor, James Cookson, Mark Cornblath, David Correale, Jorge Counsell, Serena Coutts, Shelagh Craner, Matthew Cras, Patrick Cree, Bruce Cribbs, David Crino, Peter Crone, Nathan Crosby, Gregory Cross, J. Helen Cruchaga, Carlos Cucchiara, Brett Cudkowicz, Merit Cummings, Jeffrey Curry, Cynthia J. Cutter, Gary D'Ambrosio, Raimondo Dalmau, Josep Dampney, Roger Daneman, Richard Daniels, L. B. Davidson, Beverly Davis, Stephen Dawson, Ted Dawson, Valina Day, John De Jager, Philip De La Torre, Jack De Leeuw, Frank-Erik De Visser, Marianne De Vivo, Darryl Dean, Robert Debaun, Michael Debette, Stéphanie Dekosky, Steven Del Giudice, Ennio Demchuk, Andrew Devries, Linda Dezawa, Mari d'Hooge, Rudi Di Figlia, Marian Diamond, Marc Dichgans, Martin Dick, F. Dickerson, Bradford Dickson, Dennis Dietrich, Dalton Dillon, Bill Diringer, Michael Dlugos, Dennis Dobkin, Bruce Doepp, Florian Dorsey, Earl Dougherty, Patrick Douglas, Vanja Dowd, Chris Dowling, James Dubal, Dena Dufouil, Carole Durr, Alexandra Dyck, P. James Eapen, M Easton, J. Ebers, George Edwards, Robert Egan, Gary F. Ehrenreich, Hannelore Ehrlich, M. Eidelberg, David Eisen, Andrew Elsworth, John Emery, B. Engel, Jr., Jerome Engelhardt, Britta Espinós, Carmen Evans, Scott Fabrizi, Gian Maria Fancy, Stephen Farlow, Martin Fazekas, Franz Featherstone, Mark Felderhoff-Mueser, Ursula Feldman, Eva Feltri, Maria Laura Fern, Robert Fernandez, Hubert Fernandez-Ruiz, J. Fiala, Milan Fields, Howard Fink, David Finkbeiner, Steven Firbank, Michael Fisher, Elizabeth Fisher, Marc Fisher, Robert Fisher, Simon Flanigan, Kevin Floresco, Stan Fontes, MA Fornage, Myriam Forsthuber, Thomas Fountain, Nathan Fox, Nick Fox, Robert Franklin, Gary Fratiglioni, Laura Freedman, Mark Freeman, William French, Jackie Frisoni, Giovanni Frohman, Elliot Fronczek, Rolf Frucht, Steve Fu, Ying-Hui Fugger, Lars Fullerton, Heather Gaillard, William Galasko, Douglas Galetta, Steven Galimberti, Daniela Gan, Li Gandy, Samuel Ganguli, Mary Gao, Xiang Garcia, Paul Garren, Hideki Gash, Don Gazzaley, Adam Gelfand, Jeffrey Gerber, Anthony Geschwind, Dan Geschwind, Michael Geurts, Jeroen Giacobini, Ezio Giger, Roman Gilden, Don Giles, Matthew Giovannoni, G. Gitler, Aaron Glaser, Carol Glass, Hannah Glass, Jonathan Gleeson, Joseph Glenn, Orit Goadsby, Peter Goldenberg, Georg Goldman, Samuel Goldman, Steven Goldman, Stewart Goldstein, Jonathan Goodin, Douglas Gorelick, Philip Goris, An Gorman, Mark Gorno-Tempini, Maria Luisa Gottesfeld, Joel Gourraud, Pierre-Antoine Grant, P. Grant, William Gray, William Green, Alison Green, Ari Greenamyre, Tim Greenberg, David Greenberg, Steven Greer, David Grefkes, Christian Gregory, Simon Greicius, Michael Gressens, Pierre Griggs, Robert Grinberg, Lea Grodstein, Francine Guerrini, Renzo Guilleminault, Christian Guinovart, Joan Gunn, Alistair Gupta, Nalin Guye, Maxime Haan, Mary Hahn, Cecil Hahnen, Eric Haller, Ronald Hallett, Mark Halmagyi, Michael Hardiman, Orla Hardy, John Hart, Robert Harting, Matthew Hartung, Hans Peter Harwood, Rowan Hau, Peter He, Johnny He, Yong Head, Denise Heber-Katz, Ellen Hedera, Peter Hedges, Dawson Hegde, Manu Heijnen, Cobi Heiss, Wolf-Dieter Helbig, Ingo Hemmer, Bernhard Hemphill, Claude Henninger, Nils Henry, Roland Hermann, Bruce Hermans, Emmanuel Herrlinger, Ulrich Herrmann, David Hesdorffer, Dale Hess, Christopher Hess, David Hintzen, Rogier Hirano, Michio Hobson, Grace Hochman, Daryl Hodges, John Hoge, C. Hohlfeld, Reinhard Hoke, Ahmet Hollis, B. Holloway, Robert Holmes, Gregory Holsinger, R. M. Damian Holtzman, David Horton, Jonathan Howard, Darlene Howard, George Hu, William Huang, Eric Huang, Yadong Hummel, Friedhelm Huppi, Petra Hyman, Bradley T. Iadecola, Costantino Iannaccone, Susan Ichord, Rebecca Imberti, Davide Inazawa, Johji Inder, Terrie Inoue, Ken Inoue, Yushi Irani, Sarosh Iranzo, Alex Ittner, Lars Itzhaki, Ruth Jabado, N. Jack, Clifford Jackson, Graeme Jacobson, Steve Jagust, William Jahanshahi, Marjan Jaillard, Assia Jak, Amy Jauch, Edward Jellinger, Kurt Jenkin, Graham Jensen, Frances Jette, Nathalie Johansen-Berg, Heidi Johnson, Julene Johnson, Keith Johnson, Mark Johnson, Wendy Johnston, Karen Jones, Byron Jorgenson, Eric Josephs, Keith Julius, David Jungbluth, Heinz Kahle, Philipp Kamholz, John Kanner, Andres Kao, Aimee Kaplin, Adam Kapur, Jaideep Karussis, Dimitrios Kashanchi, F. Kasner, Scott Kaspar, Brian Kaste, Markku Katan, Mira Kaufmann, Anthony Kaufmann, Walter Kawas, Claudia Kaye, Jeffrey Kayser, Andrew Kehoe, Patrick Keith, Hyland Kent, David Kerchner, Geoffrey Kernan, Walter Kerschensteiner, Martin Kessler, John Khan, Omar Khoury, Samia Kim, Anthony Kindy, Mark Kira, Jun-Ichi Kirkham, Fenella Kirsch, Heidi Kirton, Adam Kittner, Steven Kiyatkin, E. Klein, Christine Klein, William Klunk, William Knopman, David Knowlton, Robert Ko, Nerissa Kochański, Andrzej Koeppen, Arnulf Koga, Michiaki Koga, Yasutoshi Koo, Edward Koralnik, Igor Korn, T. Kosik, Kenneth Kosofsky, Barry Kotagal, Prakash Kothary, Rashmi Kountouras, Jannis Kraig, Richard Krainc, Dimitri Kramer, Joel Kruger, Rejko Kuller, Lewis Kumar, Neeraj Kumar, Sandeep Kunkel, Louis Kuwabara, Satoshi Kwakkel, Gert Kwiatkowski, David La Spada, Albert Lackland, Daniel Lacy-Hulbert, Adam Lambon-Ralph, Matthew Landers, John Lang, Anthony Lassmann, Hans Lee, Suzee Leigh, R. John Lemmers, Richard Lennon, Vanda Leppert, David Lesser, Ronald Levine, Jon Levison, Steven Levy, Dan Li, Chun Li, Yun Licht, Daniel Lifton, Richard Lindenberg, Robert Lindstrom, Jon Lipton, Howard Lipton, Richard Lisabeth, Lynda Litt, Brian Lo, Eng Lobell, A. Lomen-Hoerth, Catherine Longo, Frank Longstreth, William Loring, David Lorson, Christian Loscher, Wolfgang Lovestone, Simon Lovett-Racke, Amy Luchetti, Sabina Luchsinger, Jose Luft, Andreas Lundberg, Cecilia Lutsenko, Svetlana Lyden, Patrick Ma, Daqing Macdonald, R. Loch Macdonell, Richard Maier, Carolina Major, Eugene Mallard, Carina Mammen, Andrew Manev, Hari Mankodi, Ami Manning-Bog, Amy Maragakis, Nicholas Marasco, S. Marc, Chimowitz Marco, Elysa Marder, Karen Marks, William Marlow, Neil Marshall, Randolph Marson, Anthony Martin, Lee Martin, W. R. Martini, Rudolph Masters, Colin Mateen, Farrah Mathern, Gary Matute, Carlos Mayer, Stephan Mayerle, Julia Mayeux, Richard Mayor, Federico Maze, Mervyn Mazzini, Letizia McArthur, Justin McCarty, Catherine A. McCullough, Louise McKeon, Andrew McKhann, Guy McLaughlin, Mark McNally, Elizabeth McQuaid, S. Mead, Simon Meador, Kimford Mefford, Heather Mehling, Matthias Mehta, Atul Meijer, Onno Meininger, Vincent Meinl, Edgar Mellick, G. Mellon, Synthia Mendell, Jerry Meola, Giovanni Mercuri, Eugenio Meschia, James Messing, Robert Mesulam, M. Marsel Michaud, Jacques Mignot, Emmanuel Miller, Aaron Miller, Bruce Miller, Robert Miller, Steven Miller, Timothy Miner, Jeffery Minetti, Carlo Mitsumoto, Hiroshi Mody, Istvan Moffett, John Molinari, F. Montine, Thomas Moonis, Majaz Moore, Robert Moro, Elena Morris, John Moseley, Michael Moses, Hamilton Moskowitz, Michael Mowry, Ellen Msall, Michael Mu, Dezhi Mueller, Sabine Mueller, Susanne Mufson, Elliott Mukherjee, Pratik Mullen, Saul Muller, Majon Muraro, Paolo Murphy, Michael Murray, Brian Nabbout, Rima Nagarajan, Srikantan Naidech, Andrew Naidu, Sakkubai Nakamura, Ken Nandi, Dipankar Nash, Kendall Natowicz, Marvin Nelson, Karin Nelson, Patsi Neufeld, Elizabeth Nicholson, Garth Niehusmann, Pitt Noble, Linda Nolan, Jerry Nordli, Douglas Northington, Frances Nosarti, Chiara Nosarti Novak, Vera Nussbaum, Robert Nutt, John Nyhan, William Oaklander, Anne Louise O'Connor, Kevin Oddis, Chet Oddo, Mauro Ohayon, Maurice Okun, Michael Olanow, C. Oliver, Juan Otaegui, David Otowara, Y Otto, Markus Packer, Roger Pagan, Fernando Pantoni, Leonardo Pape, Theresa Paques, Michel Parent, Jack Partinen, Markku Partridge, John Colin Patsopoulos, Nikolaos Patterson, Marc Paudel, Misti Paul, Robert Pedersen, Finn Pelletier, Daniel Peltz, Carrie Penke, Lars Perez-Duenas, Belen Perez-Tur, Jordi Pericak-Vance, Margaret Perneczky, Robert Pernet, Cyril Pestronk, Alan Petersen, Ronald Petrou, Steven Pfefferbaum, Adolf Philip, Pierre Phukan, Julie Pierson, Tyler Piluso, Giulio Pitalugga, A. Pittock, Sean Plassman, Brenda Plazzi, Giuseppe Pleasure, David Pleasure, Samuel Pluchino, Stefano Poduri, Annapurna Polman, Chris Pomeroy, Scott Ponsonby, Anne-Louise Poolos, Nicholas Popovich, Phillip Poppert, Holger Porreca, Frank Postuma, Ronald Pruitt, Amy Prusiner, Stanley Przedborski, Serge Ptaceck, Louis Pulst, Stefan Quattrone, Aldo Quinlivan, Ros Quinn, Joseph Quintana, Francisco Qureshi, Adnan Raber, Jacob Rabinovici, Gil Raiman, Julian Rando, Thomas Ransom, Bruce Rascol, Olivier Ratan, Rajiv Raybaud, Charles Reddy, P. Hemachandra Reed, John C. Reich, Daniel Reilly, Mary Reynolds, Richard Riederer, Franz Rimer, M. Rimm, Eric Ritter, M. Ritz, Beate Riviello, Jim Robberecht, Wim Roberson, Erik Roberts, Tim Robertson, Charlene Robertson, David Robertson, Nicola Robinson, W. Rockwood, Kenneth Rodriguez, Moses Rogaeva, Ekaterina Rogawski, Mike Roh, Jae-Kyu Roos, Karen Rorke-Adams, Lucy Rosand, Jonathan Rosano, Caterina Rose, Douglas Rosenbaum, Daniel Rosenberg, Paul Rosenberg, Roger Rosenfeld, Myrna Ross, Owen Ross, Webster Rossetti, Andrea Rostasy, Kevin Roth, David Rother, Joachim Rouleau, Guy Rowbotham, Michael Rowitch, David Rowland, Lewis Rudick, Richard Russell, Michael Sabbagh, Marwan Sacco, Ralph Sadovnick, Dessa Saito, Yuko Saloner, David Samant, R. Samuels, Martin Sander, Josemir Sandercock, Peter Sankar, Raman Sano, Mary Sanoudou, Despina Saper, Clifford Saposnik, Gustavo Sarazin, Marie Savica, Rodolfo Savitz, Sean I. Sawcer, Stephen Scarmeas, Nikolaos Schäbitz, Wolf-Ruediger Scharfman, Helen Scheffer, Ingrid Scheltens, Philip Schenck, C. Scher, Mark Scherer, Steven Scherzer, Clemens Schlachetzki, Felix Schlaepfer, William W. Schlossmacher, Michael Schmidt, Reinhold Schneider, Julie Schneider-Hohendorf, Tilman Schofield, Peter Schreiner, Christoph Schuele, Stephan Schuff, Norbert Schumacher, Michael Schwab, Jan Schwartz, Andrew Schwartz, William Schwarzschild, Michael Scott, Brian Seeley, William Seitz, Rudiger Selcen, Duygu Seshadri, Sudha Sherman, Elisabeth Sherr, Elliot Shinnar, Shlomo Shuaib, Ashfaq Shy, Michael Siddique, Teepu Siderowf, Andrew Sidransky, Ellen Silber, B. Michael Silberstein, Stephen Simak, Jan Simon, David Simpson, David Singh, Inderjit Singh, Vineeta Singleton, Andrew Sisodiya, Sanjay Small, Scott Smith, Edward Smith, Eric So, Yuen Sola, Augusto Soliven, Betty Soltesz, I. Sommer, Claudia Sorond, Farzaneh Sotelo, Constantino Soto, Claudio Sperling, Reisa Srikanth, Velandai Sriram, Subramaniam Stadelmann, Christine Stafstrom, Carl Staley, Kevin Stam, Jan Starr, Philip Steindler, Dennis Steiner, Robert Steinhoff, Bernhard Steinman, Lawrence Stinear, Cathy Stirling, David Stoessl, A. Stonestreet, Barbara Strober, Jonathan Stuve, Olaf Su, T. Subramony, Sub Sullivan, Joseph Sumowski, James Sutherling, William Svaren, J. Swanborg, R. Swanson, Kristin Swanson, Raymond A. Szele, Francis Tabrizi, Sarah Talbot, Kevin Tan, E. K. Tan, Sid Tanne, David Tanner, Caroline Taupin, P. Tawakol, Ahmed Ten, Vadim Teplow, David Thal, Dietmar Theodore, William Thijs, Vincent Thio, Liu Lin Thompson, Alan Thornton, Charles Timmerman, Vincent Titulaer, Maarten Toda, Tatsushi Toledo, Juan Topakian, Raffi Toyka, Klaus Trapp, Bruce Traynor, Bryan Tremlett, Helen Trenkwalder, Claudia Trojano, Maria Tuhrim, Stanley Turan, Tanya Tuszynski, Mark Tyler, Kenneth Tzourio, Christophe Uccelli, Antonio Uyanik, G. Valcour, Victor Van Broeckhoven, Christine Van Deerlin, Vivianna van den Berg, Leonard van der Knaap, Marjo van der Kooi, Anneke van der Vlies, Annelies van Roon, W. Vandenberghe, Rik Vannucci, Susan Vemuri, Prashanthi Verbeek, Marcel Verghese, Joe Vernino, Steven Vexler, Zinaida Vezzani, Annamaria Vickrey, Barbara Victor, Jonathan Villoslada, Pablo Vincent, Angela Volpe, Joseph Von Büdingen, H.-Christian Vonsattel, Jean Voskuhl, Rhonda Wabl, Matthias Wagner, Amy Wagner, Kenneth Wais, Peter Wang, S. Wang, Yun Warburton, Elizabeth Ward, Michael Wardlaw, Joanna Waubant, Emmanuelle Weber, Martin Wegner, Michael Wehrle, Renate Weihl, Conrad Weiller, Cornelius Weiner, Howard Weiner, Leslie Weinshenker, Brian Weiss, John Weiss, Lauren Weiss, William Weisskopf, Marc Wekerle, Hartmut Weller, R. O. Wen, Patrick Wendell, Carrington Werring, David Wersching, Heike Whitmer, Rachel Whittemore, Scott Wick, Wolfgang Wilcox, Karen Wiley, Clayton Wille, Holger Wilmshurst, Jo Witte, John Wolf, Phillip Wong, Andrew Wong, Eric Wong, Ka Sing Wong, Michael Wood, Nicholas Woodhoo, Ashwin Woolf, Clifford Worrell, Gregory Worthmann, Hans Wu, Yvonne Wyss-Coray, Tony Xie, Zhongcong Yaffe, Kristine Yang, Liang-Yo Yarowsky, Paul Yenari, Midori Yong, V. Yoshor, Daniel Young, G Bryan Young, William L. Yu, Qingbao Zamvil, Scott Zazulia, Allyson Zee, David Zerr, Inga Zetterberg, Henrik Zivin, Justin Zlokovic, Berislav Zochodne, Douglas Zonderman, Alan Zuchner, Stephan Zweier, C. Aasheim, Erlend Tuseth Aasly, Jan Abeliovich, Asa Abrams, Gary Adams, Harold Adeyemo, A. Aebischer, Patrick Agid, Yves Ahlskog, J. Aisen, Paul Akaaboune, Mohammed Akassoglou, Katerina Alberts, Mark Albin, Roger Al-Chalabi, Ammar Aldskogius, Håkan Alkayed, Nabil Alldredge, Brian Alley, Dawn Alonso, Alvaro Alves, Guido Amarenco, Pierre Amato, Anthony Aminoff, Michael Andersen, Julie Angelini, Corrado Antel, Jack Aoki, Masashi Arenillas, Juan Francisco Arezzo, Joseph Arnold, Douglas Aronowski, Jaroslaw Ascherio, Alberto Avoli, Massimo Ay, Hakan Back, Stephen Badjatia, Neeraj Baehring, Joachim Balcer, Laura Ballabh, Praveen Baloh, Robert Bankiewicz, Krystof Baraban, Scott Baram, Tallie Z. Baranzini, Sergio Barber, Mark Barber, Philip Barkhof, Frederik Barkovich, A. Barks, John Barnes, Deborah Barone, Frank Bar-Or, Amit Barres, Ben Bartlett, Selena Baumann, Christian Beal, Flint Beck, Heinz Beeson, David Beggs, Alan Beghi, Ettore Bennett, Gary Bennett, Jeffrey Ben-Nun, A. Berg, Anne Berger, Joseph Berger, Mitchel Bergeron, Marcelle Bergey, Gregory Bernard, Christophe Bernard, Timothy Bernasconi, Pia Bertram, Lars Bethea, John Beyer, MK Bezard, Erwan Bidichandani, Sanjay Bigger, Brian Biller, Jose Biran, Valerie Bizzi, Alberto Blackman, James Blackstone, Craig Blalock, Eric Blankenhorn, Elizabeth Bleck, Thomas, P Blennow, Kaj Blum, David Blum, Kenneth Bodensteiner, John Boeve, Bradley Bogousslavsky, Julien Bonci, Antonello Booth, David Borlongan, Cesario Borsook, David Bosco, Daryl Bosetti, Francesca Bower, James Boxer, Adam Bradl, Monika Brady, Cheryl Brais, Bernard Bredesen, Dale Brenner, Talma Brinkmann, Volker Brody, David Bromley, Rebecca Brooks-Kayal, Amy Bruck, Wolfgang Bruno, Askiel Brust, John Buchhalter, Jeffrey Buckmaster, Paul Buckwalter, Marion Budden, Sarojini Burgess, Robert Burns, Jeffrey Burns, Ted Bush, Ashley Cai, Huaiban Cairncross, J. Cairns, Nigel Calabresi, Paolo Calabresi, Peter Camicioli, Richard M. Campion, Dominique Capelle, Laurent Caplan, Louis Cappa, Stefano Cardoso, Sandra Carmichael, S. Carroll, Jame Carter, Alexandre Carter, Chris Centonze, Diego Chabriat, Hugues Chalk, Colin Chan, Jonah Chan, Pak Chance, Phillip Chang, Edward Chang, Hsueh-Wen Checkoway, Harvey Cheetham, Mike Chemtob, Sylvain Chen, Honglei Chen, Jun Chetelat, Gael Chiba, K. Chinnery, Patrick Chiriboga, Claudia Chitnis, Tanuja Choi, Doo-Sup Cilio, Maria Roberta Clarke, Jennifer Clarkson, Andrew Cleveland, Don Clifford, David Cloyd, James Cohen, Adam Cohen, Jeffrey Cohen, Leonardo Cohen, Ronald Cohn, Ronald Colbourne, Frederick Collins, Steven Comabella, Manuel Comi, Giancarlo Connolly, Anne Connor, James Cookson, Mark Cornblath, David Correale, Jorge Counsell, Serena Coutts, Shelagh Craner, Matthew Cras, Patrick Cree, Bruce Cribbs, David Crino, Peter Crone, Nathan Crosby, Gregory Cross, J. Helen Cruchaga, Carlos Cucchiara, Brett Cudkowicz, Merit Cummings, Jeffrey Curry, Cynthia J. Cutter, Gary D'Ambrosio, Raimondo Dalmau, Josep Dampney, Roger Daneman, Richard Daniels, L. B. Davidson, Beverly Davis, Stephen Dawson, Ted Dawson, Valina Day, John De Jager, Philip De La Torre, Jack De Leeuw, Frank-Erik De Visser, Marianne De Vivo, Darryl Dean, Robert Debaun, Michael Debette, Stéphanie Dekosky, Steven Del Giudice, Ennio Demchuk, Andr