Artigo Revisado por pares

Germany's Relations with Iraq and Transjordan from the Weimar Republic to the End of the Second World War

2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 41; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00263200500119217

ISSN

1743-7881

Autores

Renate Dieterich,

Tópico(s)

Historical and Contemporary Political Dynamics

Resumo

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes An English translation of the memorandum was presented by D.C. Watt, published as ‘Document. German Ideas on Iraq, 1937–38’, Middle East Journal, Vol.2 (1958), pp.195–204. Ibid., p.202. See the bibliographical overview by Jonathan C. Friedman: ‘The Politics of Collaboration: A Historiography of Arab–German Relations, 1933–45’, in Saul S. Friedman (ed.), Holocaust Literature. A Handbook of Critical, Historical, and Literary Writings (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1993), pp.459–69. For the policy of the Weimar Republic, see Francis. R. Nicosia, Weimar Germany and the Palestine Question (Berghan: Leo Baeck Institute Year Book, 24, 1979), pp.321–45. For an overview of the different traces of the interpretation of Arab nationalism, see Israel Gershoni, ‘Rethinking the Formation of Arab Nationalism in the Middle East, 1920–45. Old and New Narratives’, in James Jankowski/Israel Gershoni (eds.), Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), pp.3–25. Francis R. Nicosia, The Third Reich and the Palestine Question (London: Tauris, 1985), p.67ff.; and Claudio G. Segré, ‘Liberal and Fascist Italy in the Middle East, 1919–39: The Elusive White Stallion’, in Uriel Dann (ed.), The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1919–1939 (New York: Homes & Meier, 1988), pp.199–212. Nicosia, Weimar Germany, p.344. Werner Feilchenfeld, Dolf Michaelis and Ludwig Pinner, Haavaara-Transfer nach Palästina und Einwanderung deutscher Juden 1933–1939 (Schriftenreihe wissenschaftlicher Abhandlungen des Leo Baeck Instituts 26, Tübingen: Mohr, 1972); and Nicosia, The Third Reich, pp.29–49. ‘Report on the political situation for the month of May, 1934’, in Robert L. Jarman (ed.), Political Diaries of the Arab World: Palestine and Jordan 1920–1965, 10 Vols (Slough: Archive Editions, 2001), Vol.2. For details of the DNB see Heinz Tillmann, Deutschlands Araberpolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Berlin/GDR: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften), p.78ff. Seth Arsenian, ‘Wartime Propaganda in the Middle East’, Middle East Journal, Vol.2 (1948), pp.417–429, and Lukasz Hirszowicz, The Third Reich and the Arab East (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), p.129ff. Hajj Amin al-Husayni, his role in Palestinian politics and his collaboration with the Nazis have been extensively researched. The best analysis so far is Philipp Mattar, The Mufti of Jerusalem. Al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and the Palestinian National Movement, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988). Arsenian, ‘Wartime Propaganda’, p.419. Transjordan had only one regularly appearing local newspaper, al-urdunn, but Palestinian newspapers were also read. Grobba reported that the print run of the Iraqi newspapers did not exceed 500 copies: Fritz Grobba, Irak (Berlin: Junker und Dünnhaupt, 1941), p.74. Shireen Khairalla, ‘Railway Networks of the Middle East to 1948’, in Thomas Philipp and Birgit Schäbler (eds.), The Syrian Land: Processes of Integration and Fragmentation. Bilad al-Sham from the 18th to the 20th Century (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998), pp.79–95. Nicosia, The Third Reich, p.182. Politisches Archiv Auswärtiges Amt (Political Archive Auswärtiges Amt, hereafter PA AA), Akten des Deutschen Konsulats in Bagdad, betr.: Jüdische Emigranten 1937–1939, V.P.A. No.3; and Emile Marmorstein, ‘Fritz Grobba’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.23 (1987), pp.376–8. Marmorstein was a contemporary of Grobba and lived in Baghdad during the 1930s. Francis R. Nicosia, ‘Fritz Grobba and the Middle East Policy of the Third Reich’, p.223f., in Edward Ingram (ed.), National and International Politics in Honour of Elie Kedourie, (London: Cass, 1986), pp.206–28. Werner Otto von Hentig, head of the Political Department/Middle East in the German Auswärtiges Amt and a rival of Grobba, commented on him as ‘somebody who would have liked to be a big shot in the NSDAP’ but was hindered from .being so by his membership of the Freemasons. Werner O. von Hentig, Mein Leben eine Dienstreise (Göttingen: Vandehoeck & Ruprecht, 1962), p.319. Stefan Wild, ‘National Socialism in the Arab Near East between 1933 and 1939’, p.150, Die Welt des Islams, Vol.25 (1985), pp.26–173. Reeva A. Simon, Iraq Between the Two World Wars. The Creation and Implementation of a Nationalist Ideology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p.72. Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), p.69ff. Elsa Marston, ‘Fascist Tendencies in pre-war Arab Politics. A Study of three Arab Political Movements’, p.19, Middle East Forum, Vol.35 (1959), pp.19–22. Wild, ‘National Socialism’, p.136. Fritz Grobba, Männer und Mächte im Orient: 25 Jahre diplomatischer Tätigkeit im Orient (Göttingen: Musterschmidt Verlag, 1967), p.188. This opinion according to nationalist movements during the 1930s in Syria and Lebanon is shared by many authors, see e.g. Milos Mendel and Zdenek Müller, ‘Fascist Tendencies in the Levant in the 1930s and 1940s, p.16f., Archiv Orientalni, Vol.55 (1987), pp.1–17. Peter Wien, ‘Arab Nationalists, Nazi-Germany and the Holocaust: An Unlucky Contemporaneity’, p.609, in Hans-Lukas Kieser and Dominik J. Schaller (eds.), Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah (Zürich: Chronos, 2003), pp.599–614. Fritz Steppat, ‘Das Jahr 1933 und seine Folgen für die arabischen Länder des Vorderen Orients’, p.267, in Gerhard Schulze (ed.), Die große Krise der dreißiger Jahre, vom Niedergang der Weltwirtschaft zum Zweiten Weltkrieg (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985), pp.261–78. Tillmann, Deutschlands Araberpolitik, p.23f. Helmut Mejcher, Die Politik und das Öl im Nahen Osten. Vol.I: Der Kampf der Mächte und Konzerne vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980), p.126. Mejcher, Die Politik und das Öl, p.124f. Bernd P.Schröder, Deutschland und der Mittlere Osten im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1975), p.69f. Claiming descent from the Prophet's family. Biographical data taken from Gailani's memoirs, R. A. Gailani, ‘Mudhakkirat’, in akhir sa'a, 6.2.1957. See also Malcolm E. Yapp, The Near East since the First World War, (London/New York: Longman, 1991) p.71f. Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq. A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Ba'thists, and Free Officers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), p.153. Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik (ADAP), Series D, Der Gesandte in Teheran [Erwin Ettel] an das Auswärtige Amt, 5.5.1941, XII, No.457 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1969ff.). Gailani, ‘Mudhakkirat’, in akhir sa‘a 13.3.1957 and 27.3. 1957. ‘Weisung Nr. 30 vom 23. Mai 1941’, in Walther Hubatsch (ed.), Hitlers Weisungen für die Kriegsführung 1939–1945. Dokumente des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Frankfurt/Main: Bernard & Graefe, 1962), p.139f. Grobba, Männer und Mächte, p.236ff. ADAP, Series D, Gesandter Grobba, z. Zt. Bagdad, an das Auswärtige Amt, 11.5.1941, XII, No.494. Bernd P.Schröder gives a very detailed account of the negotiations between Iraq on the one side and Germany and Italy on the other, and German preparations to supply Iraq with the necessary military goods. For details see Schröder, Deutschland und der Mittlere Osten, p.84ff. ADAP, Series E, Aufzeichnung des Gesandten Grobba, 16.1.1942, I, No.131. See the memoirs of an Egyptian contemporary who worked as a journalist in Berlin, Kamal al-Din Jalal, ‘Al-ittisalat al-sirriyya baina zu‘ama‘ al-‘arab wa-Hitler ithna‘ al-harb al-‘alamiyya al-thaniyya‘, in akhir sa‘a, 2. 8. 1972 and 9. 8. 1972. PA AA, Handakten Ettel, Volume 3, Bericht Ettel an Joachim von Ribbentrop, 22.9.1942. ADAP, Series E, Unterstaatssekretär Woermann an die Botschaft in Rom, 14.4.1942, II, No.139. ADAP, Series E, Aufzeichnung des Unterstaatssekretärs Woermann, 18.5.1942, II, No.219. PA AA, Handakten Ritter, Gailani an von Ribbentrop, 14.5.1942. Gailani, ‘Mudhakkirat’, in akhir sa‘a, 27.3.1953. ADAP, Series A, Aufzeichnung des Legationsrats Sobernheim, 11.9.1924, XI, No.78. See Prime Minister's Office, State Archive, The German Consulates in Palestine, 1842–1939, (Jerusalem: Israel State Archive, 1976), pp.IV–V. Bundesarchiv Potsdam (hereafter BArch), Internationale Abkommen, Generalkonsulat Jerusalem an AA, 13.6.1933, R 157 III F14730. Eugene Rogan gives a detailed account of the roots of these tribal frictions and the role of Husayn al-Tarawna and his clan during the Karak revolt of 1910, Eugene Rogan, Frontiers of the State in the late Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.184ff. PA AA, Länderakten Transjordanien, Wolff an AA, 20.12.1933, R 97229. PA AA, Länderakten Transjordanien, Wolff an AA, 7.6.1934, R 97229. Ibid. BArch, Transjordanien: Gesetzentwürfe, Bekanntmachungen, Presse-Auszüge etc. b) Zeitungsausschnitte aus der arabischen Presse, Generalkonsulat Jerusalem an Zentralstelle für Außenhandel, Berlin, 6.8.1931, R 157 III F, 14767. PA AA, Elektrische Industrien, Wasserkraft, Hackethal Draht- und Kabelwerke Hannover an AA, 8.10.1928, R 92693. Report on the political situation for the month of June, 1936, in Jarman, Political Diaries, Vol.2. Public Record Office (PRO), Foreign Office, A Monthly Report on Transjordan, August 1939, FO 371/23246. PRO, Colonial Office (CO), Report on the political situation for the month of August, 1939, CO 831/51/8. PRO, Report on the political situation for the month of February, 1941, CO 831/58/2. In Transjordan, 3500 Arab soldiers stood under the command of British officers of the Arab Legion; Schröder, Deutschland und der Mittlere Osten, p.42. Al-urdunn, 18.5.1941. Militärgeographische Angaben über Palästina und Transjordanien, Textheft, abgeschlossen am 15.Oktober 1941. Generalstab des Heeres (Abteilung für Kriegskarten und Vermessungswesen, Berlin 1941). Militärgeographische Angaben, p.69. ‘Dokument 113, Pol.VII g Rs, Aufzeichnung des Gesandten Grobba über das Vordringen Deutschlands über den Kaukasus nach dem arabischen Raum, 5. Februar 1942’, in Reimund Schnabel (ed.), Missbrauchte Mikrofone. Deutsche Rundfunkpropaganda im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Wien: Europaverlag, 1967). Abla Amawi, ‘The Consolidation of the Merchant Class in Transjordan during the Second World War’, in Eugene Rogan/Tareq Tell (eds.), Village, Steppe and State (London: British Academic Press, 1994), pp.162–86. PRO, Situation Report on Trans-Jordan for the Month of May, 1945, CO 831/60/3.

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