Artigo Acesso aberto Revisado por pares

The British State and the Irish Rebellion of 1916: An Intelligence Failure or a Failure of Response?

2012; Taylor & Francis; Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/02684527.2012.735079

ISSN

1743-9019

Autores

Geoff Sloan,

Tópico(s)

Military History and Strategy

Resumo

Abstract The teleological narrative that has dominated the handling of intelligence by the British state in the events that led up to the 1916 Irish Rebellion in Dublin has been characterised as a cocktail of incompetence and mendacity. Using new and existing archive material this article argues that both the cabinet in London and key members of the Irish Executive in Dublin were supplied with accurate and timely intelligence by the Admiralty's signals intelligence unit, the Royal Irish Constabulary and the Dublin Metropolitan Police with respect to this event. Far from being a failure of intelligence here is evidence to show that there occurred a failure of response on behalf of key decision-makers. The warnings that were given by intelligence organisations were filtered through the existing policy preferences and assumptions. As a result of these factors accurate evaluations and sound judgement were not exercised by key officials, such as Sir Matthew Nathan, in Dublin Castle. Acknowledgements Research for this article was supported by The Leverhulme Trust through the University of Reading's Liberal Way of War Programme. Notes 1 P. Hart, The IRA at War 1916–1923 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003) p.19. 2 B. Porter, Plots and Paranoia (London: Unwin Hyman 1989) pp.140–1. 3 Augustine Birrell, Chief Secretary of Ireland. Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, May 1916. 5 C. Townshend, Britain's Civil Wars (London: Faber and Faber 1986) p.46. 4 See C. Andrew, Secret Service: The Making of the British Intelligence Community (London: Sceptre Books 1986) pp.355–72. 6 L. O'Broin, Dublin Castle and the 1916 Rising (London: Sidgwick and Jackson 1966) pp.136–40. 7 Ibid., p.140. 8 Hart, The IRA at War 1916–1923, p.8. 9 Recollections Vols. 1 and 2, unpublished memoirs of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Oliver, National Maritime Museum, OLV 12, p.165. 10 Ibid., p.165. 11 Asquith and Lord Hankey did not receive news of the rebellion until the early hours of 25 April: 'They reached Downing Street on the 12.30am to find the first news of the Easter rebellion awaiting them. Asquith merely said "Well, that's really something" and went off to bed'. S. Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Volume 1 1877–1918 (London: Collins 1970) p.265. 12 For an incisive contribution to the literature on the relationship between intelligence and policy assumptions see P.R. Pillar, Intelligence and U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press 2011) pp.96–120. 16 K. Kenny, Ireland and the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2004) p.1. 13 There has been a torrent of books and articles on this subject. They include: F.X. Martin, 'Eoin MacNeill on the 1916 Rising', Irish Historical Studies 11/47 (1966) pp.226–71; T.D. Williams (ed.), The Irish Struggle, 1916–1926 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1966); K.B. Nowlan (ed.), The Making of 1916 (Dublin: Stationery Office 1969); R. Dudley Edwards, Patrick Pearse: The Triumph of Failure (London: Gollancz 1977); O'Broin, Dublin Castle and the 1916 Rising; M. Foy and B. Barton, The Easter Rising (Stroud: Sutton Books 1999); Hart, The IRA at War 1916–1923; K. Jeffery, The GPO and the Easter Rising (Dublin: Irish Academic Press 2006); C. Townshend, Easter 1916, The Irish Rebellion (London: Penguin 2006); F. McGarry, The Rising: Easter 1916 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2010). 14 See F.X. Martin (ed.), Leaders and the Men of the Easter Rising: Dublin 1916 (London: Methuen 1967). 15 D. George Boyce, '1916, Interpreting the Rising' in D. George Boyce and Alan O' Day (eds.) The Making of Modern Irish History (London: Routledge 1986) p.165. 17 B. Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points of the Irish Revolution (London: Palgrave Macmillan 2007) p.5. 18 Ibid., p.8. 19 Ibid., p.9. 20 Hart, The IRA at War, 1916–1923, p.93. 22 R.F. Foster, Modern Ireland 1600–1972 (London: Penguin Books 1989) p.471. 23 D. Lloyd George, War Memoirs, vol. 2 (London: Nicholson &Watson 1933) p.694. 21 The best book on this period is K. Jeffery, Ireland and the Great War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2000). 24 W. Keylor, The Twentieth Century World (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1992) p.59. 25 They were 1914–16, 1916–18, and 1918–21. See E. O'Halpin, 'British Intelligence in Ireland, 1914–1921' in C. Andrew and D. Dilks (eds.) The Missing Dimension (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press 1984) p.54. 26 Ibid., p.54 27 B. Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points in the Irish Revolution (London: Palgrave Macmillan 2007) p.10. 28 J.F.C. Fuller, The Reformation of War (London: Hutchinson 1923) p.201. 29 In March 1915 this act was amended to guarantee a civil trial to British citizens for most breaches of the act. Furthermore, it was under this act that the Irish rebels were tried, not martial law. 30 Townshend, Easter 1916, p.1188. 31 K. Jeffery, 'Intelligence and Counter-Insurgency Operations: Some Reflections on the British Experience', Intelligence and National Security 2/1 (1987) p.119. 32 M. Herman, Intelligence Power in Peace and War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996) p.221. 33 Herman lists Denmark and Norway in 1940; Pearl Harbour in 1941; Russia in 1941; Korea in 1950; the Chinese attack in 1962; Czechoslovakia in 1968; the Yom Kippur War in 1973; the Chinese invasion of Vietnam in 1979; the Falklands in 1982; Kuwait in 1990. See ibid., pp.221–2. 34 Pillar, Intelligence and U.S. Foreign Policy, p.217. 35 R.K. Betts, 'Surprise Despite Warning' in C. Andrew, R. Aldrich and W. Wark (eds.) Secret Intelligence: A Reader Intelligence (London: Routledge 2009) p.91. 36 Ibid., p.97. 38 O'Broin, Dublin Castle and the 1916 Rising, p.17. 37 M.J. Smith, 'Intelligence and the Core Executive', Public Policy and Administration 25/1 (2010) p.26. 40 Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. S.B. Griffith (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1963) pp.144–5. 39 Quoted in Herman, Intelligence Power in Peace and War, p.10. 42 Ibid., pp.16–17. 41 Herman, Intelligence Power in Peace and War, p.16. 43 See Andrew, Secret Service, pp.139–94; P. Beesley, Room 40: British Naval Intelligence 1914–1918 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1982). 44 Herman, Intelligence Power in Peace and War, p.16. 45 For a detailed account see Porter, Plots and Paranoia, p.103. 46 They were Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland, and Thomas Burke, permanent under-secretary, both of whom were murdered in May 1882 as they walked through Phoenix Park in Dublin. 47 Porter, Plots and Paranoia, p.103. 48 The Royal Irish Constabulary was formed in 1836 as a result of the Irish Constabulary (Ireland) Act, 1836. It was disbanded on the 30 August 1922. The power to appoint and discharge members of the force, to make rules and to fix salaries was vested in the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 49 The Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP) was set up in 1836 as a result of the Irish Constabulary (Ireland) Act, 1836. It was absorbed into the Garda Siochana in 1925. The DMP was closely modelled on London's Metropolitan Police. They were both commanded by a commissioner, who was not a police officer, but a magistrate holding a Commission of the Peace. It was also an unarmed force. 50 Record of the Rebellion in Ireland, Volume 11, Intelligence 1922, p.4. IWM 72/2/2. 51 Ibid., p.4. 52 Ibid., p.5 53 O'Halpin, 'British Intelligence in Ireland', p.55. 54 Ibid., p.55. 58 Recollections Vols 1 and 2, unpublished memoirs of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Oliver, National Maritime Museum, OLV12, p.164. 55 He had been dismissed from the DMP following the Bachelor's Walk shootings in 1914. 56 O'Halpin, 'British Intelligence in Ireland', pp.55–6. 57 Ibid., p.56. 59 The IRB was a secret revolutionary organization that was founded in March 1858. Its members believed in the illegal use of force to establish an independent Irish Republic. This organization set up a Military Council in May 1915. 60 In response to the establishment of the IRB in Dublin a sister organization was founded in New York, the Fenian Brotherhood by John O'Mahony in 1858. Its stated objectives were to establish by the force of arms an independent Ireland. It was also designed to assist the IRB based in Ireland in achieving this aim. It changed its name to Clan na Gael (family of the Gaels) in the late nineteenth century. 61 Foy and Barton, The Easter Rising, p.1. 62 The Irish National Volunteers came into existence in November 1913. It was in many respects a response to the founding of the Ulster Volunteer Force raised to resist the introduction of Home Rule into Ireland By June 1914, 65,000 men had enrolled. The control of this organization was vested in Mr John Redmond, leader of the Irish Nationalist party. By October 1914 there had been a split and the Irish Volunteers under the nominal control of John MacNeill. This new organization was pledged to 'secure the abolition of the system of governing Ireland through Dublin Castle and the British military power, and the establishment of a National Government in its place'. Their estimated total strength was about 15,200 at the time of the rebellion. The Irish Citizen Army had been founded in 1913. It was based solely in Dublin, and membership was almost exclusively confined to a proletarian base. Its leader James Connelly joined the Military Committee of the IRB in January 1916. 63 Memorandum from Chief Superintendent Owen Brien, 28 December 1914, Nathan Papers, Ms 478, Bodleian Library, Oxford. 65 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, CD 8311, 1916, HMSO, London, p.4. 64 Ibid. 66 Ibid., p.4. 67 Kuno Meyer's, 'Ireland, Germany and the Freedom of the Seas', was published in America and circulated widely in Ireland. He had been Professor of Celtic Languages at Liverpool University. 68 E. O'Halpin, 'The Secret Service Vote and Ireland', Irish Historical Studies 23/92 (1983) p.351. 69 E. O'Halpin, The Decline of the Union (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan 1987) p.109. 70 R.E. Doerries, Prelude to the Easter Rising (London: Frank Cass 2000) p.3. 71 Von Igel had established in the autumn of 1914 what was ostensibly an 'advertising agency' in Wall Street. The business carried on there had nothing what so ever to do with advertising. He was an official of the German embassy and his office was practically a sub-bureau of the German Foreign Office at Washington. Von Igel was especially concerned with the German Irish intrigues. 'Documents Relative to the Sinn Fein Movement CMD 1108, HMSO, London, 1921, p.13. 72 Sir Roger Casement was a former member of the British Diplomatic Service. He came from an Ulster protestant background. In September 1914 he wrote an open letter to the Irish people from New York. In it he urged all Irishmen to avoid taking up arms against Germany. He also declared himself to be a founding member of the Irish Volunteers. This resulted in his pension from the Foreign Office being suspended, and MI5 opening a file on him. Arrested by the RIC near Tralee when he landed from a German U-boat, he was tried and found guilty of high treason. He was hanged in 1916. 73 Shan Van Vocht, Ireland, Germany and the Next War (Belfast: Davidson & Mc Cormack 1913) p.6. 74 He was also accompanied by Eivind Adler Christensen, a Norwegian sailor he had met in New York. 75 Doerries, Prelude to the Easter Rising, p.7. 76 Casement, despite the use of Catholic priests, only managed to get 57 British POWs to sign up for this Irish Brigade. 77 Captain William Hall RN was appointed Director of Naval Intelligence in November 1914. Prior to that he had been captain of the battle cruiser HMS Queen Mary. He held the position of DNI until 1919. 78 For further details of this trip see the unpublished memoirs of Admiral Hall, Chapter 2, Hall Papers 3/3 Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge. 79 Ibid., p.21. 80 Ibid., p.20. 81 Ibid., p.20. 82 Ibid., p.22. 83 Plunkett joined the IRB in 1914. He was also a member of the military committee. He travelled to Germany to meet Casement in 1915. He was tried by a Field General Courts Martial, found guilty and executed on 4 May 1916. 84 P. Bew, Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007) p.374. 85 This was the phrase used by Robert Monteith. 86 Taken from R. Monteith, Casement's Last Adventure (Dublin: Michael F. Moynihan 1953) p.134. 87 See p.36 for full details of this operation. 88 Ibid., p.146. 89 P. McMahon, British Spies and Irish Rebels (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press 2008) p.20. 90 These decrypts demonstrated a link between the IRB, Clan Na Gael and the German government. They were published in an initial tranche by the British government in May 1918 and by a government Command Paper in 1921. 93 Documents Relative to the Sinn Fein Movement, HMSO, London, 1921, p.3. 91 Andrew, Secret Service, pp.142–5. 92 Ibid., p.167. 94 Ibid., p.3. 95 Andrew, Secret Service, p.168. 96 TNA PRO, Prem 1/7 December 1920. 98 Documents Relative to the Sinn Fein Movement, HMSO, London, 1921, p.9. 97 Devoy was described in the following way in the 1921 document: 'He was during the war the chief agent in America for communication between Germany and Sinn Fein, and was described by Von Skal, one of Count Von Bernstorff's staff in Washington, as their "Confidential Agent" in a despatch from the German Embassy in America to Berlin in February 1916'. 100 Ibid., p.13. 101 Ibid., p.13. 99 '"Comment" attached surreptitiously by Count Bernstorff to a message regarding the "Lusitania" negotiations, which was sanctioned and passed through by State Department of American Government', see Documents Relative to the Sinn Fein Movement, HMSO, London, 1921, p.13. 102 R. Monteith, Casement's Last Adventure (Dublin: Michael F. Moynihan 1953) p.134. 103 Ibid., p.135. 104 See Documents Relative to the Sinn Fein Movement, HMSO, London, 1921. Ibid., p.13. 105 See p.17. 106 Ibid., p.11. 107 Taken from Patrick Beesly's book Special Intelligence quoted in D. Ramsay Blinker Hall: Spymaster (Stroud: Spellmount 2008) p.133. 108 This was the phrase that was coined by J.F.C. Fuller, see p.5. 109 O'Halpin makes this claim based on evidence give to the Royal Commission on the rebellion See O'Halpin, 'British Intelligence in Ireland', p.59. 110 Letter from Brigadier General Stafford, Headquarters, Queenstown Garrison, 22 April 1916, Nathan Papers, MS 476, Bodleian Library, Oxford. 111 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, HMSO, London, 1916, p.7. 112 Memorandum from the Asquith Papers, Box 42, Folder 5–9, Bodleian Library, Oxford. 113 O'Halpin, The Decline of the Union, p.113. 114 Robert Monteith was a former regular soldier in the British Army who had served in the Boer War. He was dismissed from the British Army and deported from Ireland under the Defence of the Realm Act in November 1914. He subsequently became a 'Captain' in the Irish Brigade. He was also a member of the IRB. 115 Private Bailey had served in the Royal Irish Rifles in the early part of the war, but had been taken prisoner by the Germans. He had been recruited by Casement from a German POW camp to join the Irish Brigade. 116 The reason why they accompanied Casement was to man two machine guns concealed on the deck of the Aud in case an attack was made on the ship while unloading. See Monteith, Casement's Last Adventure, p.138. 117 Ibid., p.141. 118 What is curious about this huge arms shipment is that it has been described by one of the leading historians of the 1916 rebellion as: 'a comparatively insignificant cargo of second-rate arms'. See Townshend, Easter 1916, pp.126–7. 120 Statement by Signalman Waghorn, H.M.S. Bluebell. Document No. WS349, Bureau of Military Archives 19131921, Dublin. 119 Statement by Signalman Sidney Waghorn, H.M.S. Bluebell. This account is attached to and classified with that of Constable Reilly's. Constable B. Reilly ex RIC, Document No. WS 349, Bureau of Military History 1913–1921, Military Archives, Dublin. 121 L. Bayley, Pull Together (London: Harrap 1939) p.203. 122 See Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points of the Irish Revolution, p.102. 123 Constable B. Reilly, ex RIC, Document No. WS349, Bureau of Military History 1913–1921, Military Archives, Dublin. 125 Asquith Papers, Box 38, Fol. 15, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 124 The following exchange took place between Constable Reilly and Casement: 'He (Casement) said: "I am an Englishman". "Where did you come from?" I asked, and he answered, "My name is Richard Morton and I come from Denham in Buckinghamshire". I then asked him what was his business to which he replied. "I am an author and I am at present writing a book on the life of Saint Brendan and I expect I will be able to collect some statistics in the locality"'. Constable B. Reilly, ex RIC, Document No. WS349, Bureau of Military History 1913–1921, Military Archives, Dublin. 126 Nathan Papers, MS 476, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 127 See The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, CD 8311, 1916, p.7. 128 Recollections Vols. 1 and 2, unpublished memoirs of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Oliver, National Maritime Museum, OLV12, p.164. 129 M. Laffan, The Resurrection of Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999) p.39. 130 For a longer account of this decision see McGarry, The Rising, p.117. 131 See Townshend, Easter 1916, pp.141–3. 132 Ibid., p.143. 133 Ibid., p.143. 134 Ibid., pp.143–4. 138 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, CD 8311, 1916, p.6. 135 Ibid., p.87. 136 Betts, 'Surprise Despite Warning', p.97. 137 See p.19. 139 Once this was established British citizens could be interned. 140 The date of Casement's arrest. 141 The following Acts were listed by the Royal Commission as having pertinence to the period leading up to the rebellion: The Explosives Substances Act 1883, The Unlawful Drilling Act 1819, Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act 1887. The Whiteboy Acts were also still on the statue books. This was legislation that had been passed by the Irish Parliament before 1800. 142 Record of the Rebellion in Ireland in 1920–1921, Vol. 1 Operations, p.4, IWM 72/82/8. 143 O'Halpin, 'The Secret Service Vote and Ireland', p.323. 144 Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points of the Irish Revolution, p.10. 145 Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, HMSO, London, 1916, p.5. 146 Ibid., p.8. 147 Ibid., p.8. 148 Ibid., p.8. 150 Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points of the Irish Revolution, p.69. 149 O'Halpin, The Decline of the Union, p.81. 151 The Royal Commission in the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents CD 8311, HMSO, London, p.21. 155 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.22. 152 Townshend, Easter 1916, p.88. 153 Ibid., p.88. 154 Quoted in F.S.L. Lyons, John Dillon: A Biography (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1968) p.366. 156 A.H. Norway, 'Irish Experiences in War' in K. Jeffrey (ed.) The GPO and the Easter Rising (Dublin: Irish Academic Press 2006) p.41. 158 British Intelligence Reports 1916–1918, Dublin Castle Papers, TNA, PRO CO904/23. 159 Thomas McDonagh was Director of Training of the Irish Volunteers from 1914. From 1915 he was also a member of the IRB, and from 1916 a member of that organization's military committee. He was tried and found guilty under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 and executed by firing squad on 3 May 1916. 160 Information Respecting the Sinn Feiners, Detective Department, 27 March 1916, TNA, PRO CO 904/23. 161 Ibid. 162 Ibid. 163 Information Respecting the Sinn Feiners, Detective Department, DMP, 31 March 1916, TNA, PRO CO904/23. 164 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.22. 165 Nathan to the Adjutant General, Nathan Papers, MS 478, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 166 Information Respecting Sinn Fein Volunteers, DMP, 22 April 1916, TNA, PRO CO904/23. 167 This was a reference to a statement made to a meeting of Dublin City Council by Alderman Kelly. 168 Information Respecting Sinn Fein Volunteers, DMP, 22 April 1916, TNA, PRO CO 904/23. 169 McGarry, The Rising, p.117. 170 Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, HMSO, London, 1916, p.12. 171 Information Respecting Sin Fein Volunteers, DMP, 22 April 1916, TNA, PRO CO 904/23. 172 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.36. 173 This was the headquarters of the Irish Citizen Army. 174 Royal Commission on the Rebellion, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.37. 175 John Dillon to Sir Matthew Nathan, 23 April 1916, Nathan Papers, MS 476, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 176 Royal Commission on the Rebellion, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.37. 177 See Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points of the Irish Revolution, p.102. 178 Ibid., p.102. 179 Ibid., p.102. The source of the quote is taken from Inspector General's Confidential Report, 1 April–31 May 1916, TNA, CO 904/99:642. 180 Recollections Vols. 1 and 2, unpublished memoirs of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Oliver, OLV 12, National Maritime Museum, p.165. 182 C. Fitzgibbon, Out of the Lion's Paw (London: Macdonald & Co. 1969) p.63. 181 See O'Halpin, 'British Intelligence in Ireland', p.60. Also McMahon, British Spies and Irish Rebels, p.21. McMahon cites in the endnotes two sets of correspondence between Major Hall and Major Price, and Basil Thompson and Sir Edward Blackwell as evidence of this intent. 183 Telegraph to Birrell, 70 Elm Park Rd, London, 24 April 1916, Nathan Papers, MS 476, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 184 Nathan Papers, MS 476, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 185 Ibid. 186 Ibid. 187 Ibid. 188 Norway, 'Irish Experiences in War', p.40. 189 Nathan Papers, MS 476, Bodleian Library, Oxford University. 190 Ibid. 191 Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, CD8279, HMSO, London, 1916, p.12. 195 Ibid., Vol. 3, p.300. 192 See p.16. 193 William James in his biography of Hall claimed: 'The Germans agreed to arrange a demonstration by airship and naval attack to divert attention from the landing of arms'. W. James, The Eyes of the Navy: A Biographical Study of Admiral Sir Reginald Hall (London: Methuen 1955) p.110. 194 For an insight to the dispositions of the German and British naval forces see J.S. Corbett, Naval Operations (London: Longman and Green & Co. 1923) Vol. 3, Maps nos. 14 and 15. 196 TNA CO904/23/2B:17 quoted in Grob-Fitzgibbon, Turning Points of the Irish Revolution, p.212. 197 For the full extent of the casualties see ibid., p.108. 198 Ibid., p.108. 199 See the discussion on the second page of this article. 200 See the discussion on the twenty-first page of this article. 201 See the discussion on the twentieth to twenty-first pages of this article. 202 See the discussion on the twenty-fourth page of this article. 203 The Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, CD 8279, HMSO, London, 1916. 204 A. Birrell, Things Past Redress (London: Faber and Faber 1937) p.212. 205 Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, CD8279, HMSO, London, 1916, p12. 206 Quoted in Foy and Barton, The Easter Rising, p.233. 207 Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, CD 8279, HMSO, London, 1916, p.13. 208 Ibid., minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, p.10. 211 Statement by Sir Matthew Nathan to the Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents,18 May 1916, CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.10. 209 Statement by Sir Matthew Nathan to the Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Minutes of evidence and appendix of documents, 18 May 1916, CD 8311, HMSO, London, 1916, p.7. 210 See the discussion on the thirty-second and thirty-third pages of this article. 212 O'Broin, Dublin Castle and the 1916 Rising, p.159. 213 Herman, Intelligence Power in Peace and War, p.225. 214 R.K. Betts, 'Analysis, War and Decision: Why Intelligence Failures are Inevitable', World Politics 31/1 (1978) p.91. 215 Norway, 'Irish Experiences in War', p.45. 216 Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, CD 8279, HMSO, London, 1916, p.13. 217 Lyons, John Dillon, p.368. 218 H. Asquith, Memories and Reflections (London: Cassell 1928) Vol. 2, p.181. 219 Pillar, Intelligence and United States Foreign Policy, p.333. 220 See Betts, 'Analysis, War and Decision', p.62. 221 Ibid., p.62. 222 Ibid., p.63.

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