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The OSCE's post-September 11 agenda, and Central Asia

2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 19; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13600820500044910

1469-798X

María Raquel Freire,

International Relations and Foreign Policy

Abstract With an enlarged membership and a wide agenda including politico-security matters, economic and environmental issues and human aspects, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) aims at promoting stability and democratisation in its area, fostering good governance. The September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001 have prompted the organisation to reinforce its commitments with regard to the prevention of and combat against terrorism, as a primary goal in the pursuit of its main tasks of conflict prevention and management, and post-conflict rehabilitation. The institutional response of the OSCE has been translating its effort to address the new concerns while promoting its founding principles, both at headquarters and in the field. The extent to which the organisation's institutions and commitments are adequate to respond to the new challenges and promote good governance in the OSCE area are analysed. Are the OSCE principles, agreed commitments and elaborated post-September 11 agenda adequate to meet the many uncertainties and to build cooperation and security in the OSCE space? Is the OSCE prepared to respond effectively to the current challenges particularly with regard to Central Asia? Which means and what actions might the organisation pursue in the context of its new agenda? By matching words with action OSCE's contribution to global governance in Central Asia is clarified through assessing its means, activities and adequacy to meet old and new challenges. Notes See for example Steven Simon and Daniel Benjamin, "The Terror", Survival, Vol. 43, No. 4 (2001–2002), p. 5 and Jonathan Stevenson, "Pragmatic Counter-Terrorism", Survival, Vol. 43, No. 4 (2001–2002), p. 35. The CSCE became the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) after decision at the 1994 Budapest Summit, with effect from January 1, 1995. For example, CSCE Final Act, chapter VI, Helsinki, 1975; Charter of Paris for a New Europe, "Security", and Annex 1, paragraph 6, November 1990; OSCE Charter for European Security, 1999, paragraph 4. See also "OSCE on Terrorism", Office of the Secretary General, Section for External Cooperation, SEC.GAL/167/01, September 21, 2001; Seminar on Human Rights and Terrorism, Opening statement by the OSCE Chairman-in Office (CIO) Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, CIO.GAL/90/03, September 24, 2003. For an overview of the OSCE and terrorism before 11 September, see Rob Zaagman, "Terrorism and the OSCE. An Overview", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 3 (2002), pp. 206–208. OSCE Lisbon Document, A Framework for Arms Control, 1996. OSCE Action Against Terrorism Unit, established in December, 2001, . The 12 International Conventions and Protocols related to terrorism are as follows: (1) Offences and Certain other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft (1963); (2) Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (1970); (3) Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation (1971); (4) Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (1973); (5) Against the Taking of Hostages (1979); (6) Physical Protection on Nuclear Material (1980); (7) Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports serving International Civil Aviation, Supplementary to the 1971 Convention (1988); (8) Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (1988); (9) Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (1988); (10) Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection (1991); (11) Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (1997); (12) Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999). OSCE Counter-Terrorism Network Terms of Reference, 11th Meeting of the Ministerial Council, Maastricht, Annex to MC.DEC/6/03, December 2, 2003. OSCE Strategy to Address Threats to Security and Stability in the Twenty-First Century, MC(11).JOUR/2, Annex 3, 11th Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council, Maastricht, December 1–2, 2003; Victor-Yves Ghebali, "The 11th Meeting of the OSCE Ministerial Council: Political Deadlock and Institutional Change", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 15, No. 1 (2004), p. 11. Since its establishment in 1975, security within the OSCE framework has been defined in broad terms, concerning not only military aspects—the traditional conceptualisation of the term—but also political, economic, environmental and social aspects. This understanding of security, broadly diffused in post-Cold War Europe, in particular through the theoretical approaches of the Copenhagen School, demonstrates the innovative OSCE approach as early as the time of the Helsinki consultations. "OSCE Secretary General outlines Organization's response to new threats to security", OSCE Press Release, April 11, 2003. OSCE First Annual Security Review Conference, Vienna, June 25–26, 2003 and Second Annual Security Review Conference, June 23–24, 2004, official documents available at . See also "OSCE Chairman Calls for Focus on New Areas in the Fight against Terrorism", OSCE Press Release, June 23, 2004; "OSCE Holds First Annual Security Review Conference", CSCE Digest, Vol. 36, No. 7 (2003), . See International Crisis Group, "The OSCE in Central Asia: A New Strategy", Asia Report 38, September 11, 2002; Martina Huber, "The Effectiveness of OSCE Missions", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 2 (2003), p. 126. Besides OSCE official documents, see Freimut Duve, Special Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council on Combating Terrorism, FOM.GAL/6/02, April 12, 2002; Helga Konrad, "Trafficking in Human Beings—The Ugly Face of Europe", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 3 (2002), pp. 260–271; Rolf Ekeus, OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM), "Preventive Diplomacy", Muller Lecture, The Hague, January 30, 2003, p. 13. Kirsten Biering, OSCE Representative at the Bishkek Conference, OSCE Bishkek Conference Report, December 13–14, 2001, p. 68. "OSCE: Foreign Ministers Adopt Broad-Ranging Action Plan to Combat Terrorism", Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), December 5, 2001. Yevgeniy Zhovtis, Director of the Kazakhstan International Bureau for Human Rights and the Rule of Law, "11th September: Consequences for Human Rights in Central Asia", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 1 (2002), p. 1. See also Aaron Rhodes and Paula Tscherne-Lempiäinen, "Human Rights and Terrorism in the Central Asian OSCE States", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 1 (2002), pp. 37–50; Gérard Stoudmann, "Finding a Balance between Ensuring Security and Protecting Human Rights in the Fight against Terrorism", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), p. 282. Gérard Stoudmann, "Finding a Balance between Ensuring Security and Protecting Human Rights in the Fight against Terrorism", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), p. 284. See also "OSCE CIO Calls for a 'Campaign to Combat Terrorism Worldwide'", OSCE Press Release, September 21, 2001. "We are living in difficult times when the temptation to roll back on some of the civil liberties under the fighting terrorism flag is stronger than ever", Freimut Duve, OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, "Lessons Learnt from 11 September", address at the Deutsche Stiftung für Internationale Entwicklung. "Just as religion may wrongly be used to justify terrorism, so can 'anti-terrorism' actions of governments wrongly be used to justify actions that undermine human rights and freedom of religion or belief", OSCE Conference on The Role of Religion and Belief in a Democratic Society: Searching for Ways to Combat Terrorism and Extremism, Baku, CIO.GAL/86/02, October 17, 2002. Speech by United States Ambassador Elizabeth Jones at the German Studies Association Annual Conference, United States Department of State International Information Programs, October 5, 2001. Yevgeniy Zhovtis, "11th September: Consequences for Human Rights in Central Asia", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 1 (2002), p. 2. Arie Bloed, "The War Against Terrorism Raises Concerns About Human Rights", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 13, No. 1 (2002), p. 74. For example, in this regard, Freimut Duve has criticized the United States' authorities for using new legislation against terrorism to monitor the private lives of citizens, through the exposure of individuals' library records, newspaper subscriptions and bookstores receipts. See "Press Profile", OSCE Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 1 (2003), p. 19. Vicken Cheterian, "Na Engrenagem da Guerra: A Ásia Central, Retaguarda Americana", Le Monde Diplomatique, Vol. 4, No. 47 (2003), p. 18. "Carrots, Sticks, and the Tajik–Afghan Border", REF/RL Central Asia Report, Vol. 4, No. 22 (2004); International Crisis Group, Crisis Watch Bulletin, No. 11 (1 July 2004), p. 4. Within the CIS framework, the Collective Security Treaty of 1992 gave place in May, 2002 to the Collective Security Treaty Organisation. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation was established in June, 2001, including Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. 314th OSCE Permanent Council (PC) Meeting, PC.DEC/397, December 14, 2000. 179th OSCE PC Meeting, PC.DEC/243, 244 and 245, July 23, 1998 on the establishment of the OSCE Center in Almaty, Kazakhstan; the OSCE Center in Ashgabad, Turkmenistan and the OSCE Center in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, respectively. 269th PC Meeting, PC.DEC/339, agenda item 6, February 10, 2000; to "Annual Report on OSCE Activities 2003", OSCE Secretariat, Vienna, 2003. Ambassador Zannier, Director of the OSCE Conflict Prevention Centre, "OSCE in Central Asia", SEC.GAL/107/03, June 11, 2003. Rolf Ekeus, OSCE HCNM, "Preventive Diplomacy", Muller Lecture, The Hague, January 30, 2003, p. 13. Ige Dekker, "Declaration on the Fight Against Terrorism and the Protection of Human Rights—A Resolvable Conflict", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 4 (2003), p. 326. See also International Crisis Group, "The OSCE in Central Asia: A New Strategy", Asia Report 38, September 11, 2002. Declaration of the Bishkek International Conference on Enhancing Security and Stability in Central Asia: Strengthening the Comprehensive Efforts to Counter Terrorism, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, December 13–14, 2001. Refer also to the December 28, 2001 Tashkent Declaration of Presidents of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, OSCE registered as SEC.DEL/9/02, January 17, 2002. "Hanging Separately: The Heavy Costs of Non-Cooperation", The Economist, July 26, 2003, p. 11. "OSCE Envoy Urges Kyrgyzstan to Become Example of Good Governance for Central Asia", OSCE Press Release, May 21, 2003. "Turkmen President in a Somber Mood", RFE/RL Asia Report, Vol. 4, No. 25 (June 29, 2004). For further detail on the OSCE's crisis management difficulties see Maria Raquel Freire, "Crisis Management: The OSCE in the Republic of Moldova", Journal of Conflict, Security and Development, No. 2 (2002), pp. 69–90. Edmund Herzig and Neil Melvin, "Central Asia: Aspects of Security and Stability", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 3 (2003), p. 182. Edmund Herzig and Neil Melvin, "Central Asia: Aspects of Security and Stability", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 3 (2003), p. 181. "The Personal and the Political in Kyrgyzstan", RFE/RL Central Asia Report, Vol. 4, No. 22 (June 8, 2004). "Central Asia and the OSCE: Intensifying the Spirit of Partnership", OSCE Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 1 (2003), p. 7. "Central Asia and the OSCE: Intensifying the Spirit of Partnership", OSCE Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 1 (2003), p. 7. Edmund Herzig and Neil Melvin, "Central Asia: Aspects of Security and Stability", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 3 (2003), p. 185. International Crisis Group, "The OSCE in Central Asia: A New Strategy", Asia Report 38, September 11, 2002. "Deepening Democracy in a Fragmented World", United Nations Human Development Report 2002. B. Robert, "For Eurasian Security, Call the OSCE Not NATO", OSCE Newsletter, Vol. 9, No. 11 (2002), p. 6. Russian Foreign Minister Igor Ivanov, cited in "Security Issues Dominate Meeting between Mr. Ivanov and Mr. Geoana in Moscow", OSCE Press Release, October 23, 2001. See also Ivanov's address at the OSCE 9th Ministerial Council Meeting, December 4, 2001. "'The OSCE is Us', says incoming Dutch Chairman-in-Office", OSCE Newsletter, Vol. 9, No. 11 (2002), p. 3. Report of President Martti Ahtisaari, personal envoy of the CIO for the participating states in Central Asia, CIO's Activity Report for 2003, OSCE Vienna Secretariat, 2003, p. 147. See D. Norris, "The EU and the OSCE in the War on Terrorism", BASIC Notes, September 5, 2002. Martina Huber, "The Effectiveness of OSCE Missions", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 2 (2003), p. 130. "Fresh Funding Boosts Economic-Environmental Work in Central Asia", OSCE Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 3 (2003), pp. 7–9. See R. Barry, "The OSCE: A Forgotten Transatlantic Security Organisation?", BASIC Research Report No. 3, British American Security Information Council, July 2002. Ambassador Francisco Seixas da Costa, "Central Asia: Not Always a Silk Road to Democracy. The View Beyond the Hofburg", OSCE Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 3 (2004), p. 16. Valentine Bogatyrev, director, International Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the Kyrgyz Republic, "The Central Asia Transition: Threats to Security", Helsinki Monitor, Vol. 14, No. 3 (2003), p. 286. "Albanian Ambassador Urges OSCE to Hold Summit in 2005", OSCE Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 3 (2004), p. 25. Address by the OSCE Secretary-General Ambassador Jan Kubis, First Summit of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA), Almaty, SEC.GAL/98/02, June 6, 2002. Intervention of Ambassador Inocencio F. Arias, Chairman of the Counter-Terrorism Committee of the UN Secretary-General, Special 477th Meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council, PC.DEL/1376/03/Rev.1, November 18, 2003. "OSCE States Agree to Tighten Control over Export of Shoulder-Fired Missiles", OSCE Forum for Security Cooperation Press Release, May 26, 2004; Speech by James Cox, Chief US Arms Control Delegate to the OSCE Annual Security Review Conference, Session 3, Vienna, June 24, 2004. OSCE Chairman-in-Office Martins da Cruz, High Level Meeting on the Prevention and Combat of Terrorism, Lisbon, June 12, 2002.