Zoning Los Angeles: a brief history of four regimes
2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 27; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/02665433.2012.681140
ISSN1466-4518
Autores Tópico(s)Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies
ResumoAbstract This article explains how, through tools of land-use regulation, several groups of actors became particularly adept at shaping the form of Los Angeles and to what ends. Land-use regulation in Los Angeles, this article argues, represents the outcomes of battles pitting one political group against another, quite in disregard of the common purpose this regulation is intended to serve, with the most powerful usually winning at the expense of others. In Los Angeles, there have been distinct winners and losers, and these winners and losers have varied over time. In Los Angeles, there seem to be four distinct regimes characterizing the historical politics of land use. Rampant speculation defined the first, lasting from the advent of zoning in Los Angeles in 1921 into the Depression, government-sponsored big real estate the second, lasting from the Depression until the 1960s, and anti-growth advocates the third, lasting from the 1960s until 2000, with the fourth forming over the last decade and characterized by a balance between allied housing and development interests and anti-growth advocates. This article documents the rise and fall of these regimes and summarizes their varying impacts on the city. Keywords: Los Angeleszoningreal estatepoliticsurban regimes Notes 'City Planning', Pacific Municipalities 45, no. 1 (1931): 63. G. Gordon Whitnall, 'Importance of Broad City Planning', Southern California Business 1, no. 1 (1922): 8, 45. William B. Munro, 'A Danger Spot in the Zoning Movement', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 155, Part II (1931), 202–206 (206). Some of the most significant literature focusing on the parochial management of zoning and planning in the USA and its outcomes has included Richard Babcock, The Zoning Game (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966); John Delafons, Land Use Control in the United States (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969); Richard Jackson, Land Use in America (New York: V.H. Winston & Sons, 1981); and Seymour Toll, Zoned American (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1969). Partial histories of zoning in Los Angeles have most notably been written in Robert Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1967); William Fulton, The Reluctant Metropolis (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 2001); and Marc Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987). Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 42666, adopted 19 October 1921. See Clarence Perry, 'The Neighborhood Unit', Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs 7 (1929), 22–140, and Clarence Perry, Housing for the Mechanic Age (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1939). Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1931–1932, 12; each commercial cluster could serve a few of these communities and would be limited in size to preserve the value of commercial land. Designer Charles Cheney pointed out that in a low-density urban area, commercial centres should be smaller and farther apart to maximize the concentration of purchasing power necessary to sustain businesses, see 'Business Area Analysis Made', Los Angeles Times, October 13, 1929. 'Work Out Zoning Policy', Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1920; also see Los Angeles (City) City Planning Commission Minutes, Vol. 7A, July 28, 1926: 172–3, on the process of determining commercial zones' arrangement and size within a new subdivision. Gordon Whitnall, 'Zoning Rules Are Explained', Los Angeles Times, July 22, 1923; 'How to Choose Site for Home', Los Angeles Times, August 12, 1923. 'Plans Hearing for Zoning in Wilshire', Los Angeles Times, October, 31, 1920; Gordon Whitnall, 'History of Zoning Told', Los Angeles Times, November 18, 1923. On multi-family zoning being accommodating, see 'Zoning Change Yields Activity', Los Angeles Times, October 28, 1928; on multi-family zoning being too permissive, see 'Zone Condition Draws Protest', Los Angeles Times, December 2, 1928. 'Providing Space for the Newcomer', Southern California Business 7, no. 6 (1928): 22. Petition No. 4859, 1928 (Box A-0373 Los Angeles City Archives), from G.H. Woodruff, 'suggesting that if any changes are made, that restrictions be modified instead of increased'; Petition No. 4890, 1928 (Box A-0373 LACA), from Los Angeles Realty Board; Petition No. 5119, 1928 (Box A-0374 LACA), from the Wilshire District Chamber of Commerce, 'that this change would place too much authority in the hands of one body'; Petition No. 5150, 1928 (Box A-0374), from Wilshire Boulevard Association; Petition No. 5201, 1928 (Box A-0374 LACA), from the Northwest Chamber of Commerce; Petition No. 5410, 1928 (Box A-0375 LACA), from Alexander and Nathan. Frederick Law Olmstead, Harland Bartholomew, and Charles Henry Cheney for the Committee on the Los Angeles Plan of Major Highways of the Traffic Commission of the City and County of Los Angeles, A Major Traffic Street Plan for Los Angeles (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, May 1924), 34–46. C.A. Dykstra, 'Congestion De Luxe – Do We Want It?', National Municipal Review 15, no. 7 (1926): 394–8, 395. Efficiency Director of the Department of Water and Power C.A. Dykstra citing the Kelker-DeLeuw 'Report on Rapid Transit' in Dykstra 1926: 397–398. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1929–1930, 49. 'Notes and Events', National Municipal Review 13, no. 5 (1924): 318. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1927–1928, 6. 'Too Much Business Zoning', Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1928. George H. Coffin Jr., 'Appraising Property Zoned for Business', Journal of the American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers 3, no. 1 (1934): 29–33. Section 4 of the ordinance provided for exceptions to zoning rules, what would come to be known as variances. Problematically, as this code only regulated use and not bulk or density in all but Zone 'A', variances in practice amounted to zone changes, see Los Angeles (City), Ordinance 42666, adopted 19 October 1921. 'Association Hits Zoning Alteration', Los Angeles Times, February 26, 1925. City Attorney to City Planning Commission in Los Angeles (City) City Planning Commission Minutes, Vol. 6, August 6, 1925: 101–3; Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 42666, adopted 19 October 21, Section 4. 'Los Angeles City Plan Association Honors Gordon Whitnall', Pacific Municipalities 44, no. 7 (1930): 252; 'Notes and Events', 318. 'Zoning Graft in Wilshire District Told', Los Angeles Times, December 17, 1938; the York Valley Taxpayers Association referred to spot-zoning as a 'racket' in its resolution for amending Section 4 of the zoning code in Resolution of York Valley Taxpayers Association to City Council, 12 September 1932, in Petition No. 4224, 1932 (Box A-0526 LACA). Edward Bassett, 'Spot Zoning', City Planning 6, no. 3 (1930): 229–30. 'Record in Property Values', Southern California Business 8, no. 4 (1929): 30. 'Realty Board Sifts Zoning', Los Angeles Times, September 19, 1926. 'Too Much Business Zoning', Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1928. Carl Bush, 'Zoning, Its Possibilities, Purposes, and Difficulties', Los Angeles Realtor VII, 9 June 1928, 24, 28–32 (24). Munro, 'A Danger Spot', 203–4. Gordon Whitnall, 'Supply and Demand in Zoning', 109, quoted in Weiss, The Rise of the Community, 104. See 'Survey' of John P. Nield, 29 June 1933, in Petition No. 6374, 1932 (Box A-0539 LACA). 'Factors Cited in Appraisals', Los Angeles Times, March 4, 1928; City Planning Commission to Edward W. Hopkins, Los Angeles County Assessor, 12 April 1932, in Petition No. 1830, 1932 (Box A-0516 LACA). Donald M. Baker, 'Zoning, Taxation and Assessments', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 155, Part II (1931): 137–144 (141). 'Zoning Regulation Change is Opposed', Los Angeles Times, November 14, 1922; 'Zoning Change Protested', Los Angeles Times, January 27, 1924, 24. 'Councilmen's Zoning Action is Approved', Los Angeles Times, April 29, 1923. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1930–1931, 12. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1932–1933, 14; Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1928, 6. 'Unbalanced City Zoning Disclosed by Engineer', Los Angeles Times, December 7, 1935. The FHA also incorporated social characteristics into its evaluations such as the presence of minorities, with this reflecting the social norms of the days. See Kenneth Jackson's discussion of FHA lending standards in Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 197–203. See Weiss, The Rise of the Community. Harvey Molotch, 'The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place', The American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 2 (1976): 309–32. Clarence Stone, 'Urban Regimes and the Capacity to Govern: A Political Economy Approach', in Power in the City: Clarence Stone and the Politics of Inequality, ed. Marion Orr (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 2008), 76–107, 96–97. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1934–1935, 17–20. Ibid., 20. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1937–1938, 15. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1946–1947, 44. 'Zoning Code Amended on Apartment Houses', Los Angeles Times, February 3, 1948. See, for example, Communication No. 14773 (Box A-827 LACA) on rezoning 3.5 square miles in Playa del Rey; in industrial Wilmington near the port, the City Planning Commission continued the work began in 1933 to reduce the amount of commercial zoning, rezoning much of the area for residential property to accommodate incoming defence workers and arguing that '…the proposed zoning map should afford sufficient protection to encourage the FHA to insure loans and reputable lending agencies to finance multiple residential improvements…' in a letter to the City Council, 27 September 1943, in Communication No. 15797 (Box A-834 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 83070, adopted 23 December 1943. 'Growing Pains of a Great City: Sensational Development of Westchester Outlined', Los Angeles Daily News, October 19, 1941; 'Westchester District Sets New Development Standard', Los Angeles Times, June 7, 1942; 'City Planning Ideas Realized in Southwest Development', Los Angeles Times, September 20, 1942. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning 'San Fernando Valley' in Annual Report, 1942–1943, n.p. 'Hear Petition', Van Nuys News, November 6, 1947, clipping in Communication No. 30314 (Box A-945 LACA); in the Sepulveda district, opposition to the extension of commercial zoning was based on preferences for suburban living; see Communication No. 30314 (Box A-945 LACA). See petition to the City Council, 31 August 1948, in Communication No. 34603 (Box A-978 LACA) in support of extended commercial zoning in the Sepulveda district and asking why 'shoe stringing' is to be avoided in light of the automobile. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1949–1950, 4. Babcock, The Zoning Game, 120. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1954–1955, 20. The city introduced the 'RS' Residential Suburban zone in 1950 mandating a 7500-square-foot lot minimum; see Communications No. 44357 (Box A-1053 LACA), Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 97201, adopted 27 October 1950, Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1949–1950, 2, 36; for early examples of rezoning to the 'RS' designation, see Communications Nos. 50990 (Box A-1115 LACA), 56766 (Box A-1167 LACA), 57254 (Box A-1172 LACA), and 58042 (Box A-1181 LACA); regarding the 'RE' Residential Estate Zone, see Communication No. 66318 (Box A-1266 LACA), Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 105652, adopted 24 May 1955, and Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1954–1955, 14. Fred E. Case and James Gilles, 'Some Aspects of Land Planning: The San Fernando Valley Case', The Appraisal Journal 23, no. 1 (1955): 14–41. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1957–1958, 10. Los Feliz Improvement Association to City Council, 24 October 1962, in Council File 110260 (Box A-1737 LACA). Council File 110260 (Box A-1737 LACA). Concerning Height District 1-VL, see Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 145486, adopted 2 January 1974; concerning Height District 1-XL, see Council File 77-2251 (Box B-814 LACA) and Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 151564, adopted 21 September 1978. Council File 115144 (Box A-1796 LACA); Council File 117977 (Box A-1829 LACA); Council File 117977 S1 (Box A-1829 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 127777, adopted 16 June 1964; Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 130132, adopted 17 May 1965. 'Zoning Plan Protested as "$40,000 Slum"', Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1969. Jackson, Land Use in America, 35. Council File 141493 (Box A-2166 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 140934, adopted 3 September 1970; Council File 71-1902 (Box A-2401 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 142690, adopted 3 November 1971 allowed the Planning Commission to recommend changes of 'M' classified land to 'MR'. Council File 97189 (Box A-1589 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 117399, adopted 19 October 1960. 'For Mayor of Los Angeles', Los Angeles Examiner, January 15, 1961. '1200 Petition Against Porter Ranch Zoning', Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1963; Al Thrasher, 'Recall Threatened in Ranch Zoning Battle', Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1964. 'Encino Put on Partial Zoning Freeze', Los Angeles Times, March 12, 1961. Frank Riley, 'The Cry to Save Los Angeles: Is Anyone Listening?', Los Angeles 10 (December 1965): 42–45, 45. Irv Burleigh, 'Encinians Choose Up Sides in War over Development', Los Angeles Times, February 9, 1967. Walt Secor, 'Sherman Way Zoning Proposal Draws Fire', Los Angeles Times, August 13, 1964. 'Sylmar Group Seeks Zoning Moratorium', Los Angeles Times, November 6, 1960. Fulton, The Reluctant Metropolis. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1961–1962, 115. Sid Bernstein, 'GRIPErs Push for Zoning Committee', Los Angeles Times, July 25, 1963. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1963, 22; Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1963–1964, 26. George Garrigues, 'Foster Home Zoning Rule May be Eased', Los Angeles Times, March 22, 1966; Erwin Baker, 'Council Liberalizes Foster Home Zoning', Los Angeles Times, April 13, 1966; 'Council Would Waive Zoning for Head Start', Los Angeles Times, February 24, 1966. The ordinance increased the parking requirement in single-family zones from one space to two and in multi-family zones from one space per unit to one space per any unit of one or two habitable rooms, one and a half spaces per any unit of three habitable rooms, and two spaces for any unit of over three rooms. See Council File 105311 (Box A-1677 LACA) and Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 122273, adopted 12 June 1962. Council File 116846 (Box A-1816 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 129334, adopted 19 January 1965. See motion, 21 August 1969, in Council File 146712 (Box A-2237 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Staff Report and City Planning Commission Recommendation for 30 October 1969 in Council File 146712 (Box A-2237 LACA); Building Industry Association of California to John S. Gibson, 27 January 1970, in Council File 146712 (Box A-2237 LACA). Ray Wyatt quoted in Robert Seaver, 'The albatross of localism', House and Home 24, no. 6 (December 1963): 99–107, 195, 198–199, 202–203 (195). 'Zoning Called No. 1 Hurdle in Building Low Cost Housing', Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1967. 'Zoning Regulations Hamper Land Use', Los Angeles Times, April 2, 1961; 'Premise Behind Zoning Laws Obsolete, City Planners Charge', Los Angeles Times, September 24, 1961; 'Zoning Waived in Favor of Optimum Land Use', Los Angeles Times, February 18, 1962. Ron Einstoss, 'Tighter Zoning Control Needed, Yorty Tells Jury', Los Angeles Times, December 9, 1966. Los Angeles (City) Citizens' Committee on Zoning Practices and Procedures 'First Report to the Mayor and City Council', Vol. 3 of A Program to Improve Planning and Zoning in Los Angeles (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, 1968), 8–14. West Valley Property Owners Association to L.E. Timberlake, 11 February 1969, in Council File 132460 (Box A-2015 LACA). Erwin Baker, 'City Council Approves Zoning-Planning Shifts', Los Angeles Times, February 20, 1969; Erwin Baker, 'Planning-Zoning Shift Amendment Ordered', Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1969; 'YES on City Zoning Reform', Los Angeles Times, May 21, 1969; Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 138800, adopted 29 May 1969; Los Angeles (City), Charter of the City of Los Angeles as Adopted January, 1925 … and Amended May, 1969 (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, 1969): Article VIII, Sections 95, 95.5, 96.5, 96.6, 97.1, 97.2, 98, and 99; Council File 70-1137 (Box A-2286 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 141821, adopted 30 March 1971. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1971–1972, 3. Ibid. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning, Density Adjustment Study: An Examination of Multiple Residential Zoning in the City of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, May 1972), 55. Regarding workshop 'Crisis 1972', see 'Zoning is Subject of Two-Day Forum', Los Angeles Times, August 20, 1972. Jon Pastier, 'City Plan Concept "Predicated Upon Dangerous Gamble"', Los Angeles Times, February 15, 1970. 'Role of Planning' in Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1969–1970, n.p. Most down-zoning took the form of rezoning multi-family 'R3' districts to one of the 'Residential Density' districts, an action the Department of City Planning argued satisfied the community plans comprising the General Plan's Land Use Element but still promised to provide more affordable, multi-family options, see Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning 'Staff Report' on Residential Density zones, 8 August 1974, in Council File 117977-S2 (Box A-1829 LACA). AB 283 (Thomas, 1978); Los Angeles' tradition of home rule had enabled it to circumvent the state requirement that zoning conform to the General Plans in existence since AB 1301 (McCarthy, 1971). Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning Annual Report, 1985, 16. Council File 71-2915 (Box A-2424 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 145927, adopted 16 December 1971. Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 156279, adopted 12 January 1982. In The Reluctant Metropolis, Fulton reported that in 1978, before Proposition 13, the cities of Oxnard, Ventura, and Camarillo collected 8 million in property taxes and 10 million in sales taxes. One year later, they were collecting 3.7 million in property tax and 12 million in sales tax. With Proposition 13, Fulton argues, retail became the 'cash crop' of California cities, see Fulton, The Reluctant Metropolis, 260–3. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning, Housing Element: An Element of the General Plan of the City of Los Angeles (Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles, December 1986), 46. Bill Boyarsky, 'Easing L.A. Zoning, Rent Controls Urged', Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1980. Council File 83-1020 (Box C-692 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 159532, adopted 20 November 1984. Council File 81-6052 (Box C-123 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 161716, adopted 6 December 1986. Jack Birkinshaw, 'Cities May Open Door to "Granny Housing"', Los Angeles Times, July 18, 1982. SB 1160 (Mello, 1981). Council File 82-0229-S3 (Box C-465 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 159599, adopted 21 December 1984. California State Department of Housing and Community Development State Density Bonus Law (Sacramento, 1986), 1. Barbara Taylor, 'Inclusionary Zoning under Study', Los Angeles Times, August 16, 1981. Robert de Almaida quoted in Don G. Campbell, 'Inclusionary Zoning Becomes Tidal Wave', Los Angeles Times, August 17, 1980. See report of Intergovernmental Relations Committee Item 5, 12 December 1988, and attachments 1–5, in Council File 88-2194 (Box C-2149 LACA). See report of Intergovernmental Relations Committee Item 5, 12 December 1988, and attachments 1–5, in Council File 88-2194 (Box C-2149 LACA). AB 1863 (Hauser, 1989); regarding city conformance with the new density bonus legislation, see Council File 90-1034 (Box C-2408, LACA); the density bonus programme has again been altered by SB 1818 (Hollingsworth, 2005) to allow a by-right 20% density bonus given the reservation of 5% of units for very low-income households with a 2.5% additional bonus for every additional percentage point reserved up to a maximum density bonus of 35%. Alternatively, it allows a by-right 20% density bonus given the reservation of 10% of units for low-income households with a 1.5% additional bonus for every additional percentage point reserved up to a maximum density bonus of 35%. A minimum density bonus of 5% can also be granted given the reservation of 10% of units for medium-income earners in condominium projects, with a 1% additional bonus for every additional percentage point reserved up to a maximum density bonus of 35%. Rich Connell, 'Prop U Backers See It as Start of Land-Use Revolt', Los Angeles Times, October 12, 1986; Sam Hall Kaplan, 'Citizens Want a Hand in Zoning', Los Angeles Times, April 6, 1986. Doug Dowie, 'Two Councilmen Take Initiative on Zoning Law', Los Angeles Daily News, March 23, 1986. See Council File 86-1090 (LA City Clerk Connect, http://cityclerk.lacity.org/lacityclerkconnect/); Arnel Development Co. v. City of Costa Mesa 28 Cal 3d 511 (1980) ruled that an initiative could be used to rezone any property regardless of its size, paving the way for initiatives such as Proposition U. Connell, 'Prop U Backers See It'. Rich Connell, 'Prop U Backers Hit Mail Hard to Blunt Critics', Los Angeles Times, October 31, 1986. Ibid. Ibid. Kaplan, 'Citizens Want a Hand'. Friends of Westwood v. Los Angeles 191 Cal. App. 3d 259 (1987); Dan Shapiro, 'Citizen Review Now Can Save Zoning Outrage Later', Los Angeles Times, August 4, 1988. Motion, 10 June 1987, and report of Mayor Tom Bradley, 27 July 1987, in Council File 87-0986 (Box C-1707 LACA). Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 165951, adopted 29 May 1990. Council on Development Choices in the 1980s, 'Factors Shaping Development in the 80s', in Land Use Issues of the 1980s, ed. James H. Carr and Edward E. Duensing (New Brunswick: Rutgers, 1983), 3–17, 17. Robert Greene, 'Power to the Valley', L.A. Weekly, December 12, 2003, 28. Ibid. Envicom Corporation in association with Anil Verma Associates … for the Los Angeles City Planning Department, The Citywide General Plan Framework: An Element of the City of Los Angeles General Plan (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, December 1996), 3; motion, 25 July 2006, in Council File 06-1725 regarding the need for a definition of 'transit corridors' by ordinance (LA City Clerk Connect). Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning, Framework Element Public Comments (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, 1985), 185–91. Editorial, 'Breaking the Code; "Local Control" Means the Valley Wants a Say in Zoning Issues. What a Concept!', Los Angeles Daily News, November 17, 1998. Los Angeles (City), Charter of the City of Los Angeles as Adopted January, June 1999 (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, 1999), Article IX. Ted Rohrlich, 'Neighborhood Councils Plan May be Losing Ground', Los Angeles Times, May 24, 1998. Juliet Musso et al., Toward Community Engagement in City Governance: Evaluating Neighborhood Council Reform in Los Angeles, Civic Engagement Initiative (Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 2007). Ibid., 20. Ibid., 33. Steve Hymon, 'Land Use power eludes local Panels', Los Angeles Times, January 2, 2008. Musso et al., Toward Community Engagement, 35. Marc B. Haefele, 'Jersey West', L.A. Weekly, December 18, 1998, 15. Ibid. University of Southern California, Southern California Studies Center and the Brookings Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 'Sprawl Hits the Wall: Confronting the Realities of Metropolitan Los Angeles', Vol. 4 of The Atlas of Southern California (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California, 2001), 25. Harold Meyerson, 'A Place for Us?' L.A. Weekly, November 16, 2001, 20. University of Southern California, Southern California Study Center and the Brookings Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 'Sprawl Hits the Wall', 1. Ibid., 43. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning, Housing Element: An Element of the General Plan of the City of Los Angeles (Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles, 1993), 60. Construction Industry Research Board, Residential Building Permits for Selected Place by Year. Place: Los Angeles, County: Los Angeles, 2010. Los Angeles (City) Department of City Planning report to the Planning and Land Use Committee of City Council, 15 November 1990, in Council File 90-1878 (Box C-2438 LACA). Sharon Bernstein, 'Plan Would Allow Some Garage Housing', Los Angeles Times, May 3, 1997. Ibid. Following a 2004 fire in one of these units, the Fire Department gave a report of its efforts to maintain minimal safety standards in the city's illegal dwellings, saying that it was an impossible task to guarantee the safety of the thousands who inhabited them, see motion, 28 September 2004, and Fire Department report to Bernard Parks, 21 October 2005, in Council File 04-1948 (LA City Clerk Connect). Council File 99-1753 (LA City Clerk Connect). Los Angeles (City), Los Angeles Housing Crisis Task Force, In Short Supply: Recommendations of the Los Angeles Housing Crisis Task Force (Los Angeles, CA: City of Los Angeles, May 2000): 49–66. Residential Accessory Services zones 'RAS3', permitting 'R3' residential uses, and 'RAS4', permitting 'R4' residential uses, see Los Angeles (City) City Planning Commission to the Planning and Land Use Management Committee of City Council, 3 June 2002, in Council File 02-1240 (Box B-2914 LACA); Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 174999, adopted 26 November 2002. Jane Blumenfeld, 'L.A. Zoning Turns 100: Now What?', Lecture. The Huntington, San Marino, CA, 27 March 2010. Ordinance 172571, adopted 14 April 1999. Council File 02-0177 (LA City Clerk Connect); Ordinance 175038, adopted 20 December 2002. Jane Blumenfeld, 'L.A. Zoning Turns 100?'. Los Angeles (City) Ordinance 171427, adopted 20 November 1996. Robert Greene, 'Power to the Valley', L.A. Weekly, December 11, 2003, http://www.laweekly.com/2003-12-11/supplement/power-to-the-valley/. In A Better Way to Zone, Donald Elliott explains that nationwide, planners' pre-occupation with newly developing fringe areas creates a regulatory bias against areas of older construction. See Donald L. Elliott, A Better Way to Zone: Ten Principles to Create More Livable Cities (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2008): 46–7.
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