Cotton Fields or Skyscrapers?: The Case of Memphis, Tennessee
1988; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 50; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1111/j.1540-6563.1988.tb00743.x
ISSN1540-6563
Autores Tópico(s)Urbanization and City Planning
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes1. Blaine A. Brownell, “Urbanization in the South: A Unique Experience Mississippi Quarterly 26 (Spring 1973): 107. The essays in Blaine A. Brownell and David R. Goldfield, eds., The City in Southern History: The Growth of Urban Civilization in the South (Port Washington, N.Y., 1977), emphasize the similarity of southern cities to northern cities and constitute, along with Brownell's other work, the best statement of that view. Also see: Brownell, The Urban Ethos in the South, 1920–1930 (Baton Rouge, 1975); Leonard P. Curry, “Urbanization and Urbanism in the Old South,” Journal of Southern History 40 (February 1974):43–60; and Richard J. Hopkins, “Are Southern Cities Unique? Persistence as a Clue,” Mississippi Quarterly 26 (Spring 1973): 121–41.2. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers: Southern City and Region, 1607–1980 (Baton Rouge, 1982), 3. For support of this thesis, see: Goldfield, “The Urban South: A Regional Framework,” American Historical Review 86 (December 1981): 1009–34; Gerald M. Capers, “The Rural Lag on Southern Cities,” Mississippi Quarterly 21 (Fall 1968): 253–61; William D. Miller, “Rural Values and Urban Progress: Memphis, 1900–1917,” Mississippi Quarterly 21 (Fall 1968): 263–74; Don Harrison Doyle, “Urbanization and Southern Culture: Economic Elites in Four New South Cities,” in Toward A New South? Studies in Post‐Civil War Southern Communities, ed. Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr. (Westport, Conn., 1982), 11–36. Goldfield also draws heavily from W. J. Cash, The Mind of the South (New York, 1941).3. Capers, “Rural Lag on Southern Cities,” 260; Hodding Carter, Lower Mississippi (New York, 1942), 173–75.4. John M. Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County, 2 vols. (Syracuse, 1888), 1: 300–303; Capers, The Biography of a River Town: Memphis, Its Heroic Age (Chapel Hill, 1939), 98–103.5. Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County 1: 381.6. In 1860 the city's population of 22,623 included 3684 slaves. John E. Harkins, Metropolis of the American Nile (Woodland Hills, Calif., 1982), 68–69, Bureau of the Census, “Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, Population,”House Mix. Document [HMD] 85, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. (Serial 1202.)7. Of 6938 listed as foreign‐born in the 1860 Census, 4159 hailed from Ireland and 1412 from Germany. “Eighth Census, 1860,”HMD 85, 38th Cong. 1st Sess., xxxi–xxxii.8. In the 1860 presidential election, Stephen A. Douglas received 2319 votes in Memphis, John Bell 2250 and secessionist John C. Breckinridge only 572. Memphis Appeal, 13 November 1860.9. Capers, Biography of a River Town, 162, 193–205 Ernest W. Hooper, “Memphis, Tennessee: Federal Occupation and Reconstruction, 1862–1870” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1957).10. All population data taken from the ninth (1870) through the twelfth (1900) censuses. Bayrd Still, Urban America: A History With Documents (Boston, 1974), 263.11. Sterling Tracy, “The Immigrant Population of Memphis,” West Tennessee Historical Society Papers 4 (1950): 75. Of those newcomers to Memphis, most came from southern states—a majority from Tennessee, followed by substantial numbers from Mississippi and Alabama. Bureau of the Census, Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900: Population (Washington, 1901), pt. 1, 710–13.12. Capers, Biography of a River Town, 206; John Shelton Reed, The Enduring South: Subcultural Persistence in Mass Society (Lexington, Mass., 1971), 83; Memphis Commercial Appeal, 10 August 1901. On southern religion, see: Charles Reagan Wilson, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause (Athens, Ga., 1980).13. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 22 June 1906 and 7 June 1903. In “Myth and New South City Murder Rates,” Mississippi Quarterly 26 (Spring 1973): 143–53, Miller argued that the high incidence of murder resulted not from the anomie engendered by the move from rural to urban environments, hut by the myth of southern honor, a preoccupation in the South.14. Andrew A. Bruce and Thomas S. Fitzgerald, “A Study of Crime in the City of Memphis, Tennessee,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 19 (August 1928):3–15; “More Murders Than Ever,”Literary Digest, 19 January 1918, 18; Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 May 1924, 25 May 1925 and 24 February 1926.15. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 15 January 1917, 24 October 1902, 20 April 1905, 2 January 1907.16. Ibid., 7, 8 and 9 April 1924, 10 February 1925.17. Robert Lanier, Memphis in the Twenties (Memphis, 1979), 75. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 8 February 1924.18. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 12 July 1925. Lanier, Memphis in the Twenties, 78–80.19. William E. Shelton, “Movie Censorship in Memphis, 1920–1955” (Master's thesis, Memphis State University, 1970), 10. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 4 January 1924.20. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 8 January 1928. Lester Velie, “You Can't See That Movie,”Collier's, 6 May 1950, 12. David L. Sims, “Movie Censorship in Memphis, Tennessee, 1879–1933,” (Master's thesis, University of Tennessee, 1975), 38–46.21. Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County 1:534. Memphis Avalanche, 7 June 1866. On the riot, see: James G. Ryan, “The Memphis Riot of 1866: Terror in the Black Community During Reconstruction,” Journal of Negro History 62 (July 1977):243–57; Joe M. Richardson, ed., “The Memphis Race Riot And Its Aftermath,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 24 (Spring 1965): 63–69. On blacks in Reconstruction Memphis, see: Armstead L. Robinson, “Plans Dat Comed From God: Institution Building and the Emergence of Black Leadership in Reconstruction Memphis” in Burton and Mcmath, Toward A New South?, 71–102.22. Harkins, Metropolis of the American Nile, 109–11. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 12 December 1908. Dewey W. Grantham; Southern Progressivism: The Reconciliation of Progress and Tradition (Knoxville, 1983), 126; Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseeans, 1900–1930 (Knoxville, 1977), 20–36. Also confirming the symbiotic relationship between southern progressivism and racism is Jack Temple Kirby, Darkness at the Dawning: Race and Reform in the Progressive South (Philadelphia, 1972).23. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 27 November 1902 and 17 March 1904.24. Brownell, Urban Ethos in the South, 90. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 12 January 1924.25. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 27 October 1921.26. Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (New York, 1967), 46–49. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 21 April 1923.27. Lanier, Memphis in the Twenties, 99–100. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 22 July 1925. Miller, Mr. Crump of Memphis (Baton Rouge, 1964), 206.28. Lanier, Memphis in the Twenties, 98. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 29 September 1927.29. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 22 March 1924, 19 March 1925, 24 October 1925 and 29 April 1927.30. Rayburn W. Johnson, “Land Utilization in Memphis Journal of American Studies 13 (April 1979):96–100; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States (New York, 1957), 237, 257; Karl E. and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities (Chicago, 1965), 3. In 1921 City Plan Commission Chairman Wassell Randolph acknowledged that “we have a sort of natural zoning of the races” and urged that this be made formal with new zoning ordinances. City Plan Commission, “First Annual Report” (Memphis, 1921), 7.31. Walk C. Jones to Watkins Overton, 11 October 1938, “Complaints—Negro Slum Clearance Project, 1938,” Mayor's Office Files, Drawer 2, Memphis‐Shelby County Archives, Memphis. Johnson, “Land Utilization in Memphis,” 282–83; John C. Petrie, “Survey Shows Housing Scandals,”Christian Century, 21 February 1934, 265; Memphis Housing Authority, “More Than Housing” (Memphis, 1939); Memphis Commercial Appeal, 13 April 1937.32. On black electoral support for the Crump machine, see: Paul Lewinson, Race, Class, and Party (New York, 1959), 140–41. Walter P. Adkins, “Beale Street Goes To The Polls” (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1935), 20–23. Loyal Tennesseeans League, “Edward H. Crump Public Enemy No. 1,” in Robert R. Church Family Papers, Mississippi Valley Collection, Brister Library, Memphis State University. James B. Jalenak, “Beale Street Politics: A Study of Negro Political Activity in Memphis, Tennessee” (Honors thesis, Yale University, 1961), 20–30. Ralph J. Bunche, “The Political Status of the Negro,” unpublished memorandum for the CarnegieMyrdal Study, 1940, microfilm edition, New York Public Library, 1125–27; Miller, Mr. Crump of Memphis, 100–105. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 19 July and 6 August 1932, 3 August 1934.33. David M. Tucker, Lt. Lee of Beale Street (Nashville, 1971), 124–25.34. Roger Biles, “Robert R. Church, Jr. of Memphis: Black Republican Leader in the Age of Democratic Ascendancy, 1928–1940,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 42 (Winter 1983): 362–82. On Crump and the Roosevelt administration, see: Lyle W. Dorsett, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the City Bosses (Port Washington, N.Y., 1977), 35–48.35. Biles, “Robert R. Church, Jr.,” 377–78.36. Ibid., 379–82.37. Gloria Brown Melton, “Blacks in Memphis, 1920–1955: A Historical Study” (Ph.D. diss., Washington State University, 1982), 166–69; Walter White to Robert R. Church Jr., 3 January 1933, Church papers, Box 3, Folder 31; Adkins, “Beale Street Goes To The Polls,” 97–99. Tucker, Black Pastors and Leaders (Memphis, 1975), 100–102.38. Bunche, “Political Status of the Negro,” 1147–48.39. On race relations in post‐World War Two Memphis, see: Tucker, Memphis Since Crump: Bossism, Blacks, and Civic Reformers, 1948–1968 (Knoxville, 1980).40. Capers, Biography Of A River Town, 76. Memphis Appeal, 20 August 1846; “Memphis and Its Manufacturing Advantages,” DeBow's Review 10 (May 1851): 525–29; Bureau of the Census, “Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, Manufactures,”HMD 85, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. (Serial 1204). Robert A. Sigafoos, Cotton Row to Beale Street: A Business History of Memphis (Memphis, 1979), 33–36. See also: Kenneth Weiher, “The Cotton Industry and Southern Urbanization, 1880–1930,” Explorations in Economic History 14 (April 1977): 120–40.41. Sigafoos, Cotton Row to Beale Street, 49. Memphis Appeal, 1 September 1888; George E. Waring Jr., comp., “Social Statistics of Cities. Part II: Southern and Western States. Tenth Census of the United States, 1880,”HMD 42, 47th Cong., 2d Sess. (Serial 2149). On the taxing district, see: Lynette B. Wrenn, “The Taxing District of Shelby County: A Political and Administrative History of Memphis, Tennessee, 1879–1893” (Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University, 1983). The predominance of cotton is illustrated in the Memphis Appeal's annual business review, printed in the September 1 issue each year from 1883 to 1890.42. Harkins. Metropolis of the American Nile, 95–96; Capers, Biography of a River Town, 208. On abortive attempts to build cotton mills in Memphis after 1900, see Miller, Memphis During the Progressive Era (Memphis, 1957), 53–54.43. George B. Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (Baton Rouge, 1967), 71. William MacDonald, “The New United States, III: As Memphis Sees The Future,”Nation, 8 March 1919, 348–49; Memphis Commercial Appeal, 16 May 1919. Brownell, Urban Ethos in the South.44. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930, 1512; Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1932 (Washington, 1932), 758, 790, 796.45. Shields McIlwaine, Memphis Down In Dixie (New York, 1948), 280. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 30 April 1911.46. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers, esp. chap. 4. New York Times, 26 January 1973; Memphis Commercial Appeal, 22 March 1984.47. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers, 161. Juan Rayner, “An Eye‐Witness Account of Forrest's Raid on Memphis,” West Tennessee Historical Society Papers 12 (1958): 134–37.Additional informationNotes on contributorsRoger BilesThe author is Associate Professor of History at Oklahoma State University.
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