The Role of Afterschool Settings in Positive Youth Development
2007; Elsevier BV; Volume: 41; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.06.010
ISSN1879-1972
Autores Tópico(s)Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
ResumoSee Related Article p. 239The afterschool hours have become increasingly important in the United States: 6.6 million children are involved in afterschool programs and another 22 million families would desire programming if it were available (Afterschool Alliance, 2004 [[1]Afterschool AllianceAmerica after 3 pm: A household survey on afterschool in America. 2004Google Scholar]). Public policy has also fueled the demand for afterschool programs with mandated funding through the 21st Century Community Learning Centers (21st CCLC). This is one mechanism for remediating student learning problems exhibited during the school day [2Mahoney J. Zigler E. Translating science to policy under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Lessons from the national evaluation of the 21st-Century Community Learning Centers.J Appl Dev Psychol. 2006; 27: 282-294Crossref Scopus (28) Google Scholar, 3Smith E.P. Boutte G.S. Zigler E. Finn-Stevenson M. Opportunities for schools to promote resilience in children and youth.in: Maton K.I. Schellenbach C.J. Leadbetter B.J. Solarz A.L. Investing in Children, Youth, Families, and Communities: Strengths-Based Research and Policy. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC2004: 213-231Crossref Google Scholar]. However, the afterschool context is meaningful for other reasons as well. In today's era of increased accountability, schools are focusing more on academics with less time for student enrichment. This sometimes means eliminating certain subjects, to make time for increasing performance on tests [[4]Center for Mental Health in Schools. After-School Programs and Addressing Barriers to Learning. Available at: http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/afterschool/afterschool.pdf. Accessed June 26, 2007.Google Scholar]. With the demands on the school day, it is possible that some of the work of prevention and promotion could be accomplished in the time after school.The afterschool setting is interesting to consider under the rubric of positive youth development (PYD). PYD emerged in the context of rethinking child and adolescent development [5Damon W. What is positive youth development?.Ann AAPSS. 2004; 591: 13-24Crossref Scopus (565) Google Scholar, 6Lerner R.M. Fisher C.B. Weinberg R.A. Toward a science for the people: Promoting civil society through the application of developmental science.Child Develop. 2000; 71: 11-20Crossref PubMed Scopus (263) Google Scholar]. Often when youth are studied in the social sciences and health, it is under the rubric of prevention—be it violence, aggression, substance abuse, or obesity. The concept of PYD brings with it a recognition that development is not, by definition, problematic, fraught with psychopathology, substance abuse, and delinquency. PYD draws attention to the characteristics that we would like to see develop in youth [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. Yet, PYD as a construct is less useful to us if it becomes an enormous conceptual umbrella for everything positive among youth. The construct is much more helpful when we begin to define and specify what is meant by PYD.Definitions of PYD are elusive and encompass many different aspects of youth development. Empirical efforts to operationalize PYD within the field of adolescent health have focused on the dimensions of social skills, constructive use of leisure time, caring adult relationships, and decision making [[8]Klein J.D. Sabaratnam P. Auerbach M.M. et al.Development and factor structure of a brief instrument to assess the impact of community programs on positive youth development: The Rochester Evaluation of Asset Development for Youth (READY) tool.J Adolesc Health. 2006; 39: 252-260Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar]. Another important and underlying characteristic of PYD is the idea of agency [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. As one colleague has suggested, in a society that does so much to youth, it is important to emphasize doing activities with youth and even more so led by youth [[9]Watts R. Personal communication, Georgia State University. 2004Google Scholar]. Agency, initiative, problem solving, and social relationships are emerging as important components of PYD.The quickly growing literature on PYD is examining various types of settings and the degree to which these settings foster PYD. In Larson's research on various settings and the degree to which they fostered PYD, school, peer, and community-based settings indeed varied [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. In school settings, youth exhibited high levels of concentration but did not seem to demonstrate much intrinsic motivation for some of their tasks during school. On the other hand, peer activities seemed to foster more intrinsic motivation but did not seem to require much concentration and focus. Some of the activities found among youth that seemed to foster both deep attention and motivation included structured recreational opportunities and involvement in community-based learning opportunities [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. In these types of activities, even the language of youth suggested more engagement, problem-solving (i.e., consideration of hypothetical situations), and more action on the part of the youth [[10]Heath S.B. Dimensions of language development: Lessons from older children.in: Masten A.S. Cultural Process in Child Development: The Minnesota Symposium on Child Development (Vol 29). Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ1999: 59-75Google Scholar].The issue is whether the atmosphere of afterschool encourages the type of initiative and agency implied by the PYD model. The structure of afterschool can vary greatly contingent upon the purpose and mission of the program. Some programs, particularly those with a mission of academic enrichment and remediation (typified by 21st CCLCs) are very "school-like," whereas others may be structured to foster more interest, exploration, and engagement [[11]Hynes K. Smith E.P. Perkins D. Osgood W. Piloting a school-based intervention in afterschool Settings: A case study in science migration.2007Google Scholar]. Thus, it is important to empirically evaluate afterschool programs to examine the degree to which they address both prevention and promotion.Evaluations of afterschool to this point have been mixed [[12]Fashola O.S. The child first authority after-school program: A descriptive evaluation (report no. 38). Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk, Baltimore, MD1999Google Scholar], yet they suggest with adequate dosage, appropriate structure, and integration of effective curricula that afterschool programs can be successful in academic enrichment and problem prevention [13Durlak J.A. Weissberg R.P. The impact of after-school programs that promote personal and social skills. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, Chicago, IL2007Google Scholar, 14Gottfredson D.C. Gerstenblith S.A. Soule D.A. et al.Do after school programs reduce delinquency?.Prev Sci. 2004; 5: 253-266Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 15Simpkins Chaput S, Little PMD, Weiss HB. Understanding and measuring attendance in out-of-school time programs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project. Available at: http://www.gse.harvard.edu/hfrp/projects/afterschool/resources/issuebrief7.html. Accessed June 26, 2007.Google Scholar]. However, we have yet to address whether these programs that are effective in increasing academic performance and decreasing problematic behaviors are also the programs that foster PYD.In this context the Tebes et al article in the current issue of the Journal is timely and warranted [[16]Tebes J.K. Feinn R. Vanderploeg J.J. et al.Impact of a positive youth development program in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance use.J Adolesc Health. 2007; 41: 239-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar]. The article provides a quasi-experimental evaluation of an afterschool program designed to promote youth development and prevent adolescent substance abuse among adolescents participating in an afterschool program. In this study, youth participated in a "comprehensive program to promote well-being and prevent substance use among adolescents," with a focus on health education and cultural heritage. Here it would have been helpful to have more information on how the program activities mapped upon a PYD framework and the likely effects on PYD. The background could have also specified the expected processes through which culture and ethnicity might mediate substance abuse prevention efforts. For example, portions of the cultural heritage pieces in the curriculum were borrowed from the Aban Aya Youth Project [[17]Flay B.R. Graumlich S. Segawa E. Burns J.L. Holliday M.Y. Effects of 2 prevention programs on high-risk behaviors among African American youth.Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004; 158: 377-384Crossref PubMed Scopus (253) Google Scholar]. Aban Aya is a good example in that it specifies the underlying model and is supported by data that cultural collectivism is related to empathy for others and decreased aggression [[18]Jagers R.J. Snydor K. Mouttapa M. Flay B. Protective factors associated with preadolescent violence: Preliminary work on a cultural model.Am J Comm Psychol. 2007; PubMed Google Scholar]. Both collectivism and empathy are characteristics that could be considered under both a cultural and PYD framework. Because the current authors invoke a cultural framework, serious consideration should be given to the processes by which culture, race, and ethnicity might influence substance abuse. This is especially important given that ethnic minority groups are often involved in substance abuse to a similar or even lesser degree than majority group youth [[19]Turner W.L. Wallace B. African American substance abuse: Epidemiology, prevention, and treatment.Violence Against Women. 2003; 9: 576-589Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar] but are disproportionately arrested and jailed for drug involvement [20Beckett K. Nyrop K. Pfingst L. Bowen M. Drug use, drug possession, arrests, and the question of race: Lessons from Seattle.Soc Problems. 2005; 52: 419-441Crossref Scopus (185) Google Scholar, 21Blumstein A. On the racial disproportionality of United States' prison populations.J Crim Law Criminol. 1982; 73: 1259-1281Crossref Scopus (255) Google Scholar].Notwithstanding, this study offers helpful empirical data on the effects of an afterschool-based substance abuse prevention effort. Although the data are not unequivocal, the most notable effects occur upon reduced marijuana and alcohol use. This study demonstrates the value of "science migration," that school-based curricula can be implemented in afterschool with beneficial effects. The degree to which these effects are obtained through a process of increasing positive youth development has yet to be demonstrated.In summary, both the research on afterschool settings and in PYD are relatively new areas of exploration. These efforts, like the current study, can help us to better understand how we can encourage youth to not only avoid problem behavior but also to grow up to be helpful, involved citizens in our communities. See Related Article p. 239 See Related Article p. 239 See Related Article p. 239 The afterschool hours have become increasingly important in the United States: 6.6 million children are involved in afterschool programs and another 22 million families would desire programming if it were available (Afterschool Alliance, 2004 [[1]Afterschool AllianceAmerica after 3 pm: A household survey on afterschool in America. 2004Google Scholar]). Public policy has also fueled the demand for afterschool programs with mandated funding through the 21st Century Community Learning Centers (21st CCLC). This is one mechanism for remediating student learning problems exhibited during the school day [2Mahoney J. Zigler E. Translating science to policy under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Lessons from the national evaluation of the 21st-Century Community Learning Centers.J Appl Dev Psychol. 2006; 27: 282-294Crossref Scopus (28) Google Scholar, 3Smith E.P. Boutte G.S. Zigler E. Finn-Stevenson M. Opportunities for schools to promote resilience in children and youth.in: Maton K.I. Schellenbach C.J. Leadbetter B.J. Solarz A.L. Investing in Children, Youth, Families, and Communities: Strengths-Based Research and Policy. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC2004: 213-231Crossref Google Scholar]. However, the afterschool context is meaningful for other reasons as well. In today's era of increased accountability, schools are focusing more on academics with less time for student enrichment. This sometimes means eliminating certain subjects, to make time for increasing performance on tests [[4]Center for Mental Health in Schools. After-School Programs and Addressing Barriers to Learning. Available at: http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/afterschool/afterschool.pdf. Accessed June 26, 2007.Google Scholar]. With the demands on the school day, it is possible that some of the work of prevention and promotion could be accomplished in the time after school. The afterschool setting is interesting to consider under the rubric of positive youth development (PYD). PYD emerged in the context of rethinking child and adolescent development [5Damon W. What is positive youth development?.Ann AAPSS. 2004; 591: 13-24Crossref Scopus (565) Google Scholar, 6Lerner R.M. Fisher C.B. Weinberg R.A. Toward a science for the people: Promoting civil society through the application of developmental science.Child Develop. 2000; 71: 11-20Crossref PubMed Scopus (263) Google Scholar]. Often when youth are studied in the social sciences and health, it is under the rubric of prevention—be it violence, aggression, substance abuse, or obesity. The concept of PYD brings with it a recognition that development is not, by definition, problematic, fraught with psychopathology, substance abuse, and delinquency. PYD draws attention to the characteristics that we would like to see develop in youth [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. Yet, PYD as a construct is less useful to us if it becomes an enormous conceptual umbrella for everything positive among youth. The construct is much more helpful when we begin to define and specify what is meant by PYD. Definitions of PYD are elusive and encompass many different aspects of youth development. Empirical efforts to operationalize PYD within the field of adolescent health have focused on the dimensions of social skills, constructive use of leisure time, caring adult relationships, and decision making [[8]Klein J.D. Sabaratnam P. Auerbach M.M. et al.Development and factor structure of a brief instrument to assess the impact of community programs on positive youth development: The Rochester Evaluation of Asset Development for Youth (READY) tool.J Adolesc Health. 2006; 39: 252-260Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar]. Another important and underlying characteristic of PYD is the idea of agency [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. As one colleague has suggested, in a society that does so much to youth, it is important to emphasize doing activities with youth and even more so led by youth [[9]Watts R. Personal communication, Georgia State University. 2004Google Scholar]. Agency, initiative, problem solving, and social relationships are emerging as important components of PYD. The quickly growing literature on PYD is examining various types of settings and the degree to which these settings foster PYD. In Larson's research on various settings and the degree to which they fostered PYD, school, peer, and community-based settings indeed varied [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. In school settings, youth exhibited high levels of concentration but did not seem to demonstrate much intrinsic motivation for some of their tasks during school. On the other hand, peer activities seemed to foster more intrinsic motivation but did not seem to require much concentration and focus. Some of the activities found among youth that seemed to foster both deep attention and motivation included structured recreational opportunities and involvement in community-based learning opportunities [[7]Larson R.W. Toward a psychology of positive youth development.Am Psychol. 2000; 55: 170-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (1388) Google Scholar]. In these types of activities, even the language of youth suggested more engagement, problem-solving (i.e., consideration of hypothetical situations), and more action on the part of the youth [[10]Heath S.B. Dimensions of language development: Lessons from older children.in: Masten A.S. Cultural Process in Child Development: The Minnesota Symposium on Child Development (Vol 29). Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ1999: 59-75Google Scholar]. The issue is whether the atmosphere of afterschool encourages the type of initiative and agency implied by the PYD model. The structure of afterschool can vary greatly contingent upon the purpose and mission of the program. Some programs, particularly those with a mission of academic enrichment and remediation (typified by 21st CCLCs) are very "school-like," whereas others may be structured to foster more interest, exploration, and engagement [[11]Hynes K. Smith E.P. Perkins D. Osgood W. Piloting a school-based intervention in afterschool Settings: A case study in science migration.2007Google Scholar]. Thus, it is important to empirically evaluate afterschool programs to examine the degree to which they address both prevention and promotion. Evaluations of afterschool to this point have been mixed [[12]Fashola O.S. The child first authority after-school program: A descriptive evaluation (report no. 38). Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk, Baltimore, MD1999Google Scholar], yet they suggest with adequate dosage, appropriate structure, and integration of effective curricula that afterschool programs can be successful in academic enrichment and problem prevention [13Durlak J.A. Weissberg R.P. The impact of after-school programs that promote personal and social skills. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, Chicago, IL2007Google Scholar, 14Gottfredson D.C. Gerstenblith S.A. Soule D.A. et al.Do after school programs reduce delinquency?.Prev Sci. 2004; 5: 253-266Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 15Simpkins Chaput S, Little PMD, Weiss HB. Understanding and measuring attendance in out-of-school time programs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project. Available at: http://www.gse.harvard.edu/hfrp/projects/afterschool/resources/issuebrief7.html. Accessed June 26, 2007.Google Scholar]. However, we have yet to address whether these programs that are effective in increasing academic performance and decreasing problematic behaviors are also the programs that foster PYD. In this context the Tebes et al article in the current issue of the Journal is timely and warranted [[16]Tebes J.K. Feinn R. Vanderploeg J.J. et al.Impact of a positive youth development program in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance use.J Adolesc Health. 2007; 41: 239-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar]. The article provides a quasi-experimental evaluation of an afterschool program designed to promote youth development and prevent adolescent substance abuse among adolescents participating in an afterschool program. In this study, youth participated in a "comprehensive program to promote well-being and prevent substance use among adolescents," with a focus on health education and cultural heritage. Here it would have been helpful to have more information on how the program activities mapped upon a PYD framework and the likely effects on PYD. The background could have also specified the expected processes through which culture and ethnicity might mediate substance abuse prevention efforts. For example, portions of the cultural heritage pieces in the curriculum were borrowed from the Aban Aya Youth Project [[17]Flay B.R. Graumlich S. Segawa E. Burns J.L. Holliday M.Y. Effects of 2 prevention programs on high-risk behaviors among African American youth.Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004; 158: 377-384Crossref PubMed Scopus (253) Google Scholar]. Aban Aya is a good example in that it specifies the underlying model and is supported by data that cultural collectivism is related to empathy for others and decreased aggression [[18]Jagers R.J. Snydor K. Mouttapa M. Flay B. Protective factors associated with preadolescent violence: Preliminary work on a cultural model.Am J Comm Psychol. 2007; PubMed Google Scholar]. Both collectivism and empathy are characteristics that could be considered under both a cultural and PYD framework. Because the current authors invoke a cultural framework, serious consideration should be given to the processes by which culture, race, and ethnicity might influence substance abuse. This is especially important given that ethnic minority groups are often involved in substance abuse to a similar or even lesser degree than majority group youth [[19]Turner W.L. Wallace B. African American substance abuse: Epidemiology, prevention, and treatment.Violence Against Women. 2003; 9: 576-589Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar] but are disproportionately arrested and jailed for drug involvement [20Beckett K. Nyrop K. Pfingst L. Bowen M. Drug use, drug possession, arrests, and the question of race: Lessons from Seattle.Soc Problems. 2005; 52: 419-441Crossref Scopus (185) Google Scholar, 21Blumstein A. On the racial disproportionality of United States' prison populations.J Crim Law Criminol. 1982; 73: 1259-1281Crossref Scopus (255) Google Scholar]. Notwithstanding, this study offers helpful empirical data on the effects of an afterschool-based substance abuse prevention effort. Although the data are not unequivocal, the most notable effects occur upon reduced marijuana and alcohol use. This study demonstrates the value of "science migration," that school-based curricula can be implemented in afterschool with beneficial effects. The degree to which these effects are obtained through a process of increasing positive youth development has yet to be demonstrated. In summary, both the research on afterschool settings and in PYD are relatively new areas of exploration. These efforts, like the current study, can help us to better understand how we can encourage youth to not only avoid problem behavior but also to grow up to be helpful, involved citizens in our communities. Impact of a Positive Youth Development Program in Urban After-School Settings on the Prevention of Adolescent Substance UseJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 41Issue 3PreviewPositive youth development (PYD) emphasizes a strengths-based approach to the promotion of positive outcomes for adolescents. After-school programs provide a unique opportunity to implement PYD approaches and to address adolescent risk factors for negative outcomes, such as unsupervised out-of-school time. This study examines the effectiveness of an after-school program delivered in urban settings on the prevention of adolescent substance use. Full-Text PDF
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