Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

The Pharmacology of Physostigmine

1998; Wiley; Volume: 4; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1111/j.1527-3458.1998.tb00059.x

1527-3458

David J. Triggle, John M. Mitchell, Ron Filler,

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors Study

CNS Drug ReviewsVolume 4, Issue 2 p. 87-136 Free Access The Pharmacology of Physostigmine David J. Triggle, David J. Triggle The Graduate School, State University of New York, Buffalo, NYSearch for more papers by this authorJohn M. Mitchell, John M. Mitchell P. O. Box 5780, Somerset, NJSearch for more papers by this authorRon Filler, Corresponding Author Ron Filler Forest Laboratories, New York, NYDr. R. Filler, Forest Laboratories, Inc., 909 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022-4731, USA. Fax: +1 (212) 750-9152Search for more papers by this author David J. Triggle, David J. Triggle The Graduate School, State University of New York, Buffalo, NYSearch for more papers by this authorJohn M. Mitchell, John M. Mitchell P. O. Box 5780, Somerset, NJSearch for more papers by this authorRon Filler, Corresponding Author Ron Filler Forest Laboratories, New York, NYDr. R. Filler, Forest Laboratories, Inc., 909 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022-4731, USA. Fax: +1 (212) 750-9152Search for more papers by this author First published: 07 June 2006 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-3458.1998.tb00059.xCitations: 114AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat REFERENCES 1 Aigner TG, Mitchell SJ, Aggleton J, et al. Effects of scopolamine and physostigmine on recognition memory in monkeys with ibotenic-acid lesions of the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Psychopharmacology 1987; 92: 292– 300. 2 Aigner TG, Mitchell SJ, Aggleton JP, et al. Transient impairment of recognition memory following ibotenic-acid lesions of the basal forebrain in macaques. Exp Brain Res 1991; 86: 18– 26. 3 Alberch J, Carman-Krzan M, Fabrazzo M, Wise BC. Chronic treatment with scopolamine and physostigmine changes nerve growth factor (NGF) receptor density and NGF content in rat brain. Brain Res 1991; 542: 233– 240. 4 Alexandre JM, Menard J, Chevillard C, Schmitt H. Increased plasma renin activity induced in rats by physostigmine and effects of alpha- and beta-receptor blocking drugs thereon. Eur J Pharmacol 1970; 12: 127– 131. 5 Allderdice PW, Gardner HAR, Galutira D, Lockridge O, La Du BN, McAlpine PJ. The cloned butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) gene maps to a single chromosome site, 3q26. Genomics II 1991; 452– 454. 6 Amitai G, Taylor P. Characterization of peripheral anionic site peptides of ChE by photoaffinity labeling with monoazidopropidium (MAP). In: J Massoulie, F Bacu, E Barnard, A Chatonnet, BP Doctor, DM Quinn, eds. Cholinesterases: Structure, function, mechanism, genetics, and cell biology. Washington , DC : American Chemical Society, 1991. 7 Anglade F, Bizot J-C, Dodd RH, Baudoin C, Chapouthier G. Opposite effects of cholinergic agents and benzodiazepine receptor ligands in a passive avoidance task in rats. Neurosci Lett 1994; 182: 247– 250. 8 Appleyard ME, Vercher J-E, Greenfield SA. Release of acetylcholinesterase from the guinea pig cerebellum in vivo. Neuroscience 1988; 25: 133– 138. 9 Appleyard ME. Secreted acetylcholinesterase: non-classical aspects of a classical enzyme. Trends Neurosci 1992; 15: 485– 490. 10 Appleyard ME, Jahnsen H. Actions of acetylcholinesterase in the guinea pig cerebellar cortex in vitro. Neuroscience 1992; 47: 291– 301. 11 Aracava Y, Deshpande SS, Rickett DL, Brossi A, Schonenberger B, Albuquerque EX. The molecular basis of anticholinesterase actions on nicotinic and glutamatergic synapses. Ann NY Acad Sci 1987; 505: 226– 255. 12 Argyll-Robertson D. On the calabar bean as a new agent in ophthalmic medicine. Edinburgh Med J 1863; 8: 815– 820. 13 Arneric SP, Holladay MW, Sullivan JP. Cholinergic channel modulators as a novel therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Exp Opin Invest Drugs 1996; 5: 79– 100. 14 Ashall F, Goate AM. Role of the β-amyloid precursor protein in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Biochem Sci 1994; 19: 42– 46. 15 Atack JR, Perry EK, Bonham JR, et al. Molecular forms of acetylcholinesterase in senile dementia of Alzheimer type: Selective loss of the intermediate (10S) form. Neurosci Lett 1983; 40: 199– 204. 16 Atack JR, Perry EK, Bonham JR, Candy JM, Perry RH. Molecular forms of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase in the aged human central nervous system. J Neurochem 1986; 47: 263– 277. 17 Atack JR, Perry EK, Bonham JR, Candy JM, Perry RH. Molecular forms of butyrylcholinesterase in the human neocortex during development and degeneration of the cortical cholinergic system. J Neurochem 1987; 48: 1687– 1689. 18 Atack JR, Yu Q-S, Soncrant TT, Brossi A, Rapoport SI. Comparative inhibitory effects of various physostigmine analogs against acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterases. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1989; 249: 194– 202. 19 Atack JR, Litvan I, Thal LJ, May C, Rapoport SI, Chase TN. Cerebrospinal fluid acetylcholinesterase in progressive supranuclear palsy reduced activity relative to normal subjects and lack of inhibition by oral physostigmine. J Neural Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54: 832– 835. 20 Bareggi SR, Giacobini E. Acetylcholinesterase activity in ventricular and cisternal CSF of dogs. Effect of chlorpromazine. J Neurosci Res 1978; 3: 335– 339. 21 Bartolini A, Ocello R. Release of acetylcholine from atria isolated from guinea pigs in the presence of mipafox and eserine. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper 1965; 41: 1480– 1483. 22 Bartolini A, Bartolini R, Domino EF. Effects of physostigmine on brain acetylcholine content and release. Neuropharmacology 1973; 12: 15– 25. 23 Bartus RT. Physostigmine and recent memory: effects in young and aged nonhuman primates. Science 1979; 206: 1087– 1089. 24 Bartus RT, Dean RL, III, Beer B, Lippa AS. The cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction. Science 1997; 217: 408– 417. 25 Bartus RT, Dean RL. Tetrahydroaminoacridine, 3,4-diaminopyridine and physostigmine: Direct comparison of effects on memory in aged primates. Neurobiol Aging 1988; 9: 351– 356. 26 Becker RE, Giacobini E. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of acetylcholinesterase inhibition: Can acetylcholine levels in the brain be improved in Alzheimer's disease Drug Dev Res 1988; 14: 235– 246. 27 Beilin B, Vatashsky E, Weinstock M. Physostigmine as an antidote for poisoning by combination of thioridazine and trihexyphenidyl. Br J Clin Pract 1985; 39: 400– 401. 28 Berman HA, Yguerabide T, Taylor P. Fluorescence energy transfer on acetylcholinesterase: Spatial relationship between peripheral site and active center. Biochemistry 1980; 19: 2226– 2235. 29 Berrettini WH, Garrick NA, Nurnberger JI, Jr, et al. Intravenous physostigmine increases cerebrospinal fluid neuropeptide-Y. Biol Psychiatry 1989; 26: 623– 630. 30 Berridge MJ. Inositol lipids and calcium signaling. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 1998; 234: 359– 378. 31 Berridge MJ. Inositol trisphosphate and calcium signaling. Nature 1993; 361: 315– 325. 32 Bertrand N, Beley A. Effect of oxotremorine, physostigmine and scopolamine on brain acetylcholine synthesis: A study using HPLC. Neurochem Res 1990; 15: 1097– 1100. 33 Bhat R, Turner SL, Marks MJ, Collins AC. Selective changes in sensitivity to cholinergic agonists and receptor changes elicited by continuous physostigmine infusion. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1990; 255: 187– 196. 34 Bliss TVP, Collingridge GL. A synaptic model of memory: Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature 1993; 361: 31– 39. 35 Boyer AW, Somani SM. Pharmacokinetics of biliary excretion of physostigmine in rat. Arch Int Pharmacodyn 1985; 278: 180– 192. 36 Braida D, Paladini E, Griffini P, Lamperti M, Maggi A, Sala M. An inverted U-shaped curve for heptylphysostigmine on radial maze performance in rats: Comparison with other cholinesterase inhibitors. Eur J Pharmacol 1996; 302: 13– 20. 37 Brezenoff HE, Rusin J. Brain acetylcholine mediates the hypertensive response to physostigmine in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 1974; 29: 262– 266. 38 Brezenoff HE, Giuliano R. Cardiovascular control by cholinergic mechanisms in the central nervous system. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1982; 22: 341– 381. 39 Brezenoff HE. Cardiovascular regulation by brain acetylcholine. Fed Proc 1984; 43: 17– 20. 40 Brezenoff HE, Vargas H, Xiao Y-F. Blockade of brain M2 muscarinic receptors lowers blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Pharmacology 1988; 36: 101– 105. 41 Brezenoff HE, Xiao Y-F. Acetylcholine in the posterior hypothalamic nucleus is involved in the elevated blood pressure in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Life Sci 1989; 45: 1163– 1170. 42 Brodie RR, Chasseaud LF, Robbins AD. Determination of physostigmine in plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1987; 415: 423– 431. 43 Brossi A, Schonenberger B, Clark OE, Ray R. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase from electric eel by (−) and (+)physostigmine and related compounds. FEBS Lett 1986; 201: 190– 192. 44 Brown TH, Chapman PF, Kairiss EW, Keenan CL. Long-term synaptic potentiation. Science 1988; 242: 724– 728. 45 Brownlee G, Harry J. Some pharmacological properties of the circular and longitudinal muscle strips from the guinea-pig isolated ileum. Br J Pharmacol 1963; 21: 544– 554. 46 Buccafusco JL, Jackson WJ, Terry AV, Jr. Effects of concomitant cholinergic and adrenergic stimulation on learning and memory performance by primates. Life Sci 1992; 51: 7– 12. 47 Buck ML, Reed MD. Use of nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents in mechanically ventilated patients. Clin Pharmacol 1991; 10: 32– 48. 48 Burks JS, Walker JE, Rumack BH, Ott JE. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning. JAMA 1974; 230: 1405– 1407. 49 Buxbaum JD, Oishi M, Chen HI, et al. Cholinergic agonists and interleukin-1 regulate processing and secretion of the Alzheimer beta/A4 amyloid protein precursor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 10075– 10078. 50 Caputi AP, Rossi F, Carney K, Brezenoff H. Modulatory effect of brain acetylcholine on reflex-induced bradycardia and tachycardia in conscious rats. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1980; 215: 309– 316. 51 Carlyle RF. The mode of action of neostigmine and physostigmine on the guinea pig trachealis muscle. Br J Pharmacol 1963; 21: 137– 149. 52 Changeux J-P. Responses of acetylcholinesterase from Torpedo marmorate to salts and curarizing drugs. Mol Pharmacol 1966; 2: 369– 392. 53 Chatonnet A, Lockridge O. Comparison of butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase. Biochem J 1989; 260: 625– 634. 54 Chinkers M, Garbers DL. Signal transduction by guanylyl cyclases. Annu Rev Biochem 1991; 60: 553– 575. 55 Chubb IW, Goodman S, Smith AD. Is acetylcholinesterase secreted from central neurons into the cerebrospinal fluid Neuroscience 1976; 1: 57– 62. 56 Clarke PBS, Reuben M, El-Bizri H. Blockade of nicotinic responses by physostigmine, tacrine and other cholinesterase inhibitors in rat striatum. Br J Pharmacol 1994; 111: 695– 702. 57 Clemens LG, Barr P, Dohanich G. Cholinergic regulation of female sexual behavior in rats demonstrated by manipulation of endogenous acetylcholine. Physiol Behav 1989; 45: 437– 442. 58 Clement JG. Effect of a single dose of an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor on oxotremorine- and nicotine-induced hypothermia in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1991; 39: 929– 934. 59 Cole OF, Marquis VO. A pharmacological analysis of the responses of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle of the bat to transmural and periarterial nerve stimulation. Br J Pharmacol 1985; 84: 587– 593. 60 Console S, Ladinsky H, Peri G, Garattini S. Effect of diazepam on mouse whole brain and brain area acetylcholine and choline levels. Eur J Pharmacol 1974; 27: 266– 268. 61 Cordell B. β-Amyloid formation as a potential therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1994; 34: 69– 89. 62 Costa LG, Murphy SD. Passive avoidance retention in mice tolerant to the organophosphorus insecticide disulfotan. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1982; 65: 451– 458. 63 Cox B, Hecker SE, Weston AH. Effects of two cholinesterase inhibitors on acetylcholine release from the guinea pig isolated ileum preparation. J Pharm Pharmacol 1970; 22: 231– 232. 64 Coyle JT, Price DL, DeLong MR. Alzheimer's disease: A disorder of cortical cholinergic innervation. Science 1983; 219: 1184– 1190. 65 Crowell EB, Ketchum JS. The treatment of scopolamine-induced delirium with physostigmine. Clin Pharmacol Therap 1967; 8: 409– 414. 66 Cuadra G, Summers K, Giacobini E. Cholinesterase inhibitor effects on neurotransmitters in rat cortex in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1994; 270: 277– 284. 67 Cummings JL, Gorman DG, Shapira J. Physostigmine ameliorates the delusions of Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1993; 33: 536– 541. 68 Curley WH, Standaert FG, Dretchen KL. Physostigmine inhibition of 3′,5′-cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase from cat sciatic nerve. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1984; 228: 656– 661. 69 Dam M, London ED. Effects of cholinomimetics on glucose utilization in rat brain optic systems. Eur J Pharmacol 1983; 87: 137– 140. 70 Davis BM, Brown GM, Miller M, Friesen HG, Kastin AJ, Davis KL. Effects of cholinergic stimulation on pituitary hormone release. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1982; 7: 347– 354. 71 DeSarno P, Giacobini E, Downen M. Release of acetylcholinesterase from the caudate nucleus of the rat. J Neurosci Res 1987; 18: 578– 590. 72 DeSarno P, Giacobini E. Modulation of acetylcholine release by nicotinic receptors in the rat brain. J Neurosci Res 1989; 22: 194– 200. 73 Deutsch JA. The cholinergic synapse and the site of memory. Science 1971; 174: 788– 794. 74 Deutsch JA. The cholinergic synapse and the site of memory. In: J Deutsch, ed. Physiological basis of memory. New York : Academic Press, 1983; 367– 386. 75 Deyi XD, Linxiu W, Shuqiu P. The inhibition and protection of cholinesterase by physostigmine and pyridostigmine against soman poisoning in vivo. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1981; 1: 217– 221. 76 Dirnhuber P, French M, Green DM, Leadbeater L, Stratton JA. The protection of primates against soman poisoning by pretreatment with pyridostigmine. J Pharm Pharmacol 1979; 31: 295– 299. 77 Dixon WE, Brodie TG. Contributions to the physiology of the lungs. Part I. The bronchial muscles, their innervation, and the action of drugs upon them. J Physiol 1903; 27: 97– 111. 78 Dokla CPJ, Thal LJ. Effect of cholinesterase inhibitors on Morris water task behavior following lesions of the nucleus basalis magnocellularis. Behav Neurosci 1988; 102: 861– 871. 79 Dokla CPJ, Rydelek-Fitzgerald L. Comparison of tetrahydroaminoacridine and physostigmine on scopolamine-induced free swim behavior in the rat. Psychopharmacology 1991; 103: 240– 243. 80 Dragstedt CA. Trial by ordeal. Quant Bull Northwestern Univ School Med 1945; 19: 137– 141. 81 Dumery V, Derer P, Blozovski D. Enhancement of passive avoidance learning through small doses of intra-amygdaloid physostigmine in the young rat. Its relation to the development of acetylcholinesterase. Dev Psychobiol 1988; 21: 553– 565. 82 Elble R, Giacobini E, Scarsella GF. Cholinesterases in cerebrospinal fluid. A longitudinal study in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1987; 44: 403– 407. 83 KAC Elliott, IH Pope, JH Quastel, eds. Neurochemistry: The chemistry of brain and nerve. Springfield , IL : Thomas, 1962. 84 Erickson CK, Burnam WL. Cholinergic alteration of ethanol-induced sleep and death in mice. Agents Actions 1971; 2: 8– 13. 85 Exton JH. Regulation of phosphoinositide phospholipases by hormones, neurotransmitters, and other agonists linked to G proteins. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 36: 481– 509. 86 Flood JF, Landry DW, Jarvik ME. Cholinergic receptor interactions and their effects on long-term memory processing. Brain Res 1981; 215: 177– 185. 87 Fox PT, Raichle ME, Mintun MA, Dence C. Nonoxidative glucose consumption during focal physiologic neural activity. Science 1988; 241: 462– 464. 88 Frederick DL, Schulze GE, Gillam MP, Paule MG. Acute effects of physostigmine on complex operant behavior in rhesus monkeys. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1995; 50: 641– 648. 89 Friedland RR, Meibach RC. Effects of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors on 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake in the rat brain. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1981; 7: 494. 90 Friedman MJ, Jaffe JH. A central hypothermic response to pilocarpine in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1969; 167: 34– 44. 91 Garthwaite J, Boulton CL. Nitric oxide signaling in the central nervous system. Annu Rev Physiol 1995; 57: 683– 706. 92 Geaney DP, Soper N, Shepstone BJ, Cowen PJ. Effect of central cholinergic stimulation on regional cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease. Lancet 1990; 335: 1484– 1487. 93 Genovese RF. Effects of azaprophen, scopolamine, and trihexyphenidyl on schedule-controlled behavior, before and after chronic physostigmine. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 176: 271– 279. 94 Getman DK, Eubanks J, Camp S, Evans G, Taylor P. The human gene encoding acetylcholinesterase is located on the long arm of chromosome 7. Am J Hum Genet 1992; 51: 170– 177. 95 Giacobini E, Somani S, McIlhany M, Downen M, Hallak M. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of physostigmine after intravenous administration in beagle dogs. Neuropharmacology 1987; 26: 831– 836. 96 Giacobini E, Becker R, Elble R, Mattio T, McIlhany M. Acetylcholine metabolism in brain: is it reflected by CSF changes? In: A Fisher, I Hanin, C Lachman, eds. Alzheimer and Parkinson's Diseases. New York : Plenum Press, 1986; 309– 316. 97 Giacobini E, Becker R, Elble R, Mattio T, McIlhany M, Scarsella G. Brain acetylcholine—a view from the cerebrospinal fluid. In: N Dua, ed. Neurobiology of Aging. New York : Plenum Press, 1987; 85– 102. 98 Gidda JS, Buyniski JP. Swallow-evoked peristalsis in opossum esophagus: Role of cholinergic mechanisms. Am J Physiol 1986; 251: G779– G785. 99 Goldberg ND, Haddox MK. Cyclic GMP metabolism and involvement in biological regulation. Annu Rev Biochem 1977; 46: 823– 896. 100 Gongora JL, Sierra A, Mariscal S, Aceves J. Physostigmine stimulates phosphoinositide breakdown in the rat neostriatum. Eur J Pharmacol 1988; 155: 49– 55. 101 Gottfries CG. Neurochemical aspects of aging and diseases with cognitive impairment. J Neurosci Res 1990; 27: 541– 547. 102 Gray PJ, Dawson RM. Kinetic constants for the inhibition of eel and rabbit brain acetylcholinesterase by some organophosphates and carbamates of military significance. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1987; 91: 140– 144. 103 Green AL. A theoretical kinetic analysis of the protective action exerted by eserine and other carbamate anticholinesterases against poisoning by organophosphorus compounds. Biochem Pharmacol 1983; 32: 1717– 1722. 104 Greenfield SA, Nedergaard S, Webb C, French M. Pressure ejection of acetylcholinesterase within the guinea pig substantia nigra has non-classical actions on the pars compacta cells independent of selective receptor and ion channel blockade. Neuroscience 1989; 29: 21– 25. 105 Greenfield SA. A noncholinergic action of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the brain: From neuronal secretion to the generation of movement. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1991; 11: 55– 77. 106 Hallak M, Giacobini E. Relation of brain regional physostigmine concentration to cholinesterase activity and acetylcholine and choline levels in rat. Neurochem Res 1986; 11: 1037– 1048. 107 Hallak M, Giacobini E. A comparison of the effects of two inhibitors on brain cholinesterase. Neuropharmacology 1987; 26: 521– 530. 108 Harel M, Sussman JL, Krejci E, et al. Conversion of acetylcholinesterase to butyrylcholinesterase, modeling and mutagenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 10827– 10831. 109 Haroutunian V, Barnes E, Davis KL. Cholinergic modulation of memory in rats. Psychopharmacology 1985; 87: 266– 271. 110 Harris LW, Lennox WJ, Talbot BG, Anderson DR, Swanson DR. Toxicity of anticholinesterases: Interactions of pyridostigmine and physostigmine with soman. Drug Clin Toxicol 1984; 7: 507– 526. 111 Harris LW, Anderson DR, Lennox WJ, Solana RP. Effects of subacute administration of physostigmine on blood acetylcholinesterase activity, motor performance, and soman intoxication. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1989; 97: 267– 271. 112 Harry J. The action of drugs on the circular muscle strip from the guinea pig isolated ileum. Br J Pharmacol 1963; 20: 399– 417. 113 Hartvig P, Wiklund L, Lindstrom B. Pharmacokinetics of physostigmine after intravenous, intramuscular and subcutaneous administration in surgical patients. Acta Anesth Scand 1986; 30: 177– 182. 114 Harvey AL, Rowan EG. Effects of tacrine, aminopyridines and physostigmine on acetylcholinesterase, acetylcholine release and potassium currents. Adv Neurol 1990; 51: 227– 233. 115 Hasey G, Hanin I. Plasma corticosterone is increased and correlated with brain acetylcholine in physostigmine- but not in neostigmine-treated rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1990; 15: 357– 369. 116 Hemsworth BA, West GB. Anticholinesterase activity of some degradation products of physostigmine. J Pharm Sci 1970; 59: 118– 120. 117 Heyl WC, Harris LW, Stitcher DL. Effects of carbamates on whole blood cholinesterase activity: Chemical protection against soman. Drug Chem Toxicol 1980; 3: 319– 332. 118 Hobbiger F. Pharmacology of anticholinesterase drugs. In: E Zaimis, ed. The neuromuscular junction. Heidelberg , Berlin : Springer-Verlag, 1976: 487– 581. 119 Hoffman WE, Albrecht RF, Miletich DJ, Hagen TJ, Cook JM. Cerebrovascular and cerebral metabolic effects of physostigmine, midazolam and a benzodiazepine antagonist. Anaesth Analgesia 1986; 65: 639– 644. 120 Holmstedt B. The ordeal bean of old calabar: The pageant of Physostigma venenosum in medicine. In: T Swain, ed. Plants in the development of modern medicine. Cambridge , MA , 1972: 303– 360. 121 Honma M, Ui M. Plasma cyclic GMP: Response to cholinergic agents. Eur J Pharmacol 1978; 47: 1– 10. 122 Hornykiewicz O, Kobinger W. Influence of eserine, tetraethylpyrophosphate (TEPP) and neostigmine on blood pressure and the pressor carotid sinus reflex in the rat. Arch Exp Path Pharmacol 1956; 228: 493– 500. 123 Huff FJ, Reiter CT, Rand JB. The ratio of acetylcholinesterase to butyrylcholinesterase influences the specificity of assays from each enzyme in human brain. J Neural Trans 1989; 75: 129– 134. 124 Hunter R, Wyper DJ, Patterson J, Hansen MT, Goodwin GM. Cerebral pharmacodynamics of physostigmine in Alzheimer's disease investigated using single-photon computerized tomography. Br J Psychiatry 1991; 158: 351– 357. 125 Hutchinson M, Kosterlitz HW, Gilbert JC. Effects of physostigmine and electrical stimulation on the acetylcholine content of the guinea pig ileum. Eur J Pharmacol 1976; 39: 221– 235. 126 Ignarro LJ, Ballot B, Wood KS. Regulation of soluble guanylate cyclase activity by porphyrins and metalloporphyrins. J Biol Chem 1984; 259: 6201– 6207. 127 Inagawa K. Cholinergic modulation of spatial working memory of mice in radial maze performance: Retention curve analysis. Jpn J Psychopharmacol 1993; 13: 233– 238. 128 Inestrosa NC, Alvarez A, Perez CA, et al. Acetylcholinesterase accelerates assembly of amyloid-β-peptides into Alzheimer's fibrils: Possible role of the peripheral site of the enzyme. Neuron 1996; 16: 881– 891. 129 Ito S, Kimura A, Ohga A. Development of non-cholinergic, non-adrenergic excitatory and inhibitory responses to intramural nerve stimulation in rat stomach. Br J Pharmacol 1988; 93: 684– 692. 130 Ito T, Miura Y, Kadokawa T. Physostigmine induces in rats a phenomenon resembling long-term potentiation. Eur J Pharmacol 1988; 156: 351– 359. 131 Ito T, Miura Y, Kadokawa T. Effects of physostigmine and scopolamine on long-term potentiation of hippocampal population spikes in rats. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1988; 66: 1010– 1016. 132 Janowsky DS, Risch SC. Cholinomimetic and anticholinergic drugs used to investigate an acetylcholine hypothesis of affective disorders and stress. Drug Dev Res 1984; 4: 125– 142. 133 Jastak JT. Physostigmine: An antidote for excessive central nervous system depression or paradoxical rage reactions resulting from intravenous diazepam. Anesthesia Prog 1985; 32: 87– 92. 134 Joyce PR, Donald RA, Nicholls MG. Physostigmine reduces the plasma cortisol response to methylphenidate in normal subjects. J Psychiat Res 1986; 20: 151– 157. 135 Kalow W. Pharmacogenetics: Past and future. Life Sci 1990; 47: 1385– 1397. 136 Karczmar AG. Properties of anticholinesterase agents. In: WS Root, EF Hofman, eds. Physiological pharmacology, vol III, pt C. New York / London : Academic Press, 1967: 163– 322. 137 Katz B, Miledi R. Transmitter leakage from motor nerve endings. Proc. Roy Soc Lond B 1977; 196: 59– 72. 138 Keeler JR, Hurst CG, Dunn MA. Pyridostigmine used as a nerve agent pretreatment under wartime conditions. JAMA 1991; 266: 693– 695. 139 Kendall DA, Nahorski SR. Depolarization-evoked release of acetylcholine can mediate phosphoinositide hydrolysis in slices of rat cerebral cortex. Neuropharmacology 1987; 26: 513– 519. 140 Kerwin JF, Jr, Lancaster JR, Jr, Feldman PL. Nitric oxide: A new paradigm for second messengers. J Med Chem 1995; 36: 4343– 4362. 141 Knapp S, Wardlow ML, Albert K, Waters D, Thal J. Correlation between plasma physostigmine concentrations and percentage of acetylcholinesterase inhibition over time after controlled release of physostigmine in volunteer subjects. Drug Metab Dispos 1991; 19: 400– 404. 142 Koelle GB, Koelle ES, Friedenwald JS. The effect of inhibition of specific and nonspecific cholinesterase on the motility of the isolated ileum. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1950; 100: 180– 191. 143 Koelle GB. Autonomic and pharmacologic control of colonic activity. Ann NY Acad Sci 1954; 58: 307– 316. 144 Koster R. Synergisms and antagonisms between physostigmine and di-isopropyl fluorophosphate in cats. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 1946; 88: 39– 46. 145 Kronfeld PC. Eserine and pilocarpine: Our 100 year old allies. Survey Ophthalmol 1970; 14: 479– 485. 146 Kumar V, Smith RC, Sherman KA, et al. Cortisol responses to cholinergic drugs in Alzheimer's disease. Int J Clin Pharmacol Therap Toxicol 1988; 26: 471– 476. 147 Lapetina EG, Michell RH. Stimulation by acetylcholine of phosphatidylinositol, labeling. Subcellular distribution in rat cerebral-cortex slices. Biochem J 1972; 126: 1141– 1147. 148 Lawrence GD, Yatim N. Extraction of physostigmine from biologic fluids and analysis by liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. J Pharmacol Methods 1990; 24: 137– 143. 1