Jadidism in South-eastern Europe: The Influence of Ismail Bey Gaspirali among Bulgarian Turks
2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 41; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00263200500119225
ISSN1743-7881
Autores Tópico(s)Soviet and Russian History
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes In the preparation of this article, Prefessors Yavuz Akpinar and Hakan Kirimli provided copies of several valuable sources that are listed in the notes. The authors thank both for their assistance. Among a number of works on Jadidism to have emerged in recent years, note the two following critical sources: Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999) and the collection of articles that appeared in Cahiers du Monde Russe, Vol.37, No.1–2 (1996). In this regard, a number of classic studies on the combined topics of politics, identity formation, and media have been influential in guiding this study. In particular, the study of identity and the concept of ‘print capitalism’ developed by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, revised edn (London: Verso, 1991). Also, note the work of Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1966). As examples, note the following works that address the varied relationships between the diffusions of print technologies, media, and cultures with the rise and development of Jadidist and other reform movements. Francis Robinson, ‘Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print’, Modern Asian Studies, Vol.27, No.1 (1993), pp.229–51; and two of the works by Adeeb Khalid, ‘Muslim Printers in Tsarist Central Asia: A Research Note’, Central Asian Survey, Vol.11, No.3 (1992), pp.113–8; and ‘Printing, Publishing, and Reform in Tsarist Central Asia’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.26, No.2 (1994), pp.187–200. Of the many sources on Gaspirali – and the Crimean Tatars, the following works provide key details and insights as to his life and legacies. Alexandre Bennigsen, ‘Ismail Bei Gasprinskii (Gaspirali) i Vozniknovenie Dzhadidizma v Rossii’, Etnograficheskoe Obozrenie, Vol.6 (1992), pp.116–24; Nadir Devlet, İsmail Bey Gaspıralı (1851–1914), (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı, 1988); Alan W. Fisher, ‘A Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali’, in Edward A. Allworth (ed.) The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland – Studies and Documents, 2nd edn, revised and expanded (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998) pp.29–47; and The Crimean Tatars (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1987); Hakan Kirimli, National Movements and National Identity among the Crimean Tatars, 1905–1916 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996); Edward J. Lazzerini, ‘Gadidism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century: A View from Within’, Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique, Vol.16, No.2 (1975), pp.245–77, and ‘From Bakhchisarai to Bukhara in 1893: Ismail Bey Gasprinskii's Journey to Central Asia’, Central Asian Survey, Vol.3, No.4 (1984), pp.77–88; Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, ‘The Tatars of the Crimea: A Retrospective Summary’, Central Asian Review, Vol.16, No.1 (1968), pp.15–25; İlber Ortaylı, ‘Reports and Considerations of Ismail Bey Gasprinskii in Tercüman on Central Asia’, Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique, Vol.32, No.1 (1991), pp.43–6; Mustafa Ozgur Tuna, ‘Gaspirali v. Il'Minskii: Two Identity Projects for the Muslims of the Russian Empire’, Nationalities Papers, Vol .30, No.2 (2002), pp.265–89; and, Mehmet Saray, Türk Dünyası'nda Eğitim Reformu ve Gaspıralı İsmail Bey (1851–1914), (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1987). Regarding the demographic situations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in some parts of today's Bulgaria as reflected in the Ottoman register books, see: İlhan Şahin, Feridun Emecen and Yusuf Halaçoğlu, ‘Turkish Settlements in Roumelia (Bulgaria) in the 15th and 16th Centuries: Town and Village Population’, in Kemal H. Karpat (ed.), The Turks of Bulgaria: The History, Culture, and Political Fate of a Minority, (Istanbul: The ISIS Press, 1990), pp.23–42; and, Yusuf Halaçoğlu, ‘XVI. Yüzyılda Sosyal, Ekonomik ve Demografik Bakımdan Bazı Osmanlı Şehirleri,’ Belleten, Vol.LIII, No.207–8 (Aug.–Dec. 1989), p.649. Note demographic information contained in Kemal H. Karpat, Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985). See Ömer Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, 1878–1908, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1998), pp.79–118. On the Bulgarian Turks of this period, note Turan, The Turkish Minority, pp.79–118. Also, for a published selection of related primary documents, see Bilal N. Şimşir (ed.), Turkish Migrations from the Balkans (Documents), Vol.I (1877–1878) and Vol.II (1879), (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1989). Regarding its establishment and institutions, see Mahir Aydın, Şarkî Rumeli Vilayeti, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1992). For the history of Bulgaria in that period, see: C.E. Black, The Establishment of Constitutional Government in Bulgaria, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943); and, Richard J. Crampton, Bulgaria, 1878–1918: A History, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983). See Turan, The Turkish Minority, pp.79–118. Concerning the Pomaks, see Ömer Turan, ‘Pomaks, Their Past and Present,’ Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.19, No.1, (1999), pp.69–84. For more information on the demographic, social, cultural, and economic situations of Turks in the Bulgarian Principality during the 1878–1908 period, see Turan, The Turkish Minority, pp.98–297. For example, note the discussion of the census in such histories of nation-building found in Anderson, Imagined Communities. See Turan, The Turkish Minority, pp.216–7. Such divisions occurred along political but also religious lines, and they would also promote disunity over seemingly minor issues. For instance, from a religious point of view, it was vigorously debated whether or not Muslims should be permitted to wear caps – as though there were not more pressing concerns faced by the Turkish and Muslim community as a whole. Note the following issues of Balkan (Plovdiv): No.349, 13 Kanunisani 1323 (26 Feb. 1908); No.355, 20 Kanunisani 1323 (2 Feb. 1908); No.356, 21 Kanunisani 1323 (3 Feb. 1908); and, No.359, 25 Kanunisani 1323 (7 Feb. 1908). For example, note Balkan (Plovdiv), No.14, 28 Temmuz 1322 (10 Aug. 1906). Balkan (Plovdiv), No.9, 22 Temmuz 1322 (4 Aug. 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.235, 12 Haziran 1322 (25 June 1906). Black, The Establishment of Constitutional Government, p.207. For the effect of those commissaries and their activities in Bulgaria for the Turks of Bulgaria, see Ömer Turan, ‘Bulgaristan'da Prenslik Döneminde Türklerin Sosyal ve Siyasal Kurumlaşma Çalışmaları’, Belleten, Vol.LXIV, No.239 (April 2000), pp.89–100. Kirimli, National Movements, pp.37–40, and 47. Concerning Gaspirali's development of and his promotion of this modern education method, see also: Saray, Türk Dünyası'nda Eğitim Reformu; and, Devlet, İsmail Bey Gaspıralı. Fuad Köprülü, ‘İsmail Bey Gasprinski’, Cumhuriyet (Istanbul), 7 March 1928. Cited and translated in Fisher, ‘A Model Leader,’ p.31. M. Necmettin Deliorman, Meşrutiyet'ten Önce Balkan Türklerinin Tarihi, (Istanbul: Birinci Kitap, 1942), pp.147–8. Arminius. Vambéry, ‘A Muhammedan Congress in Cairo’, The Times (London), (22 Oct. 1907). Cited in Kirimli, National Movements, pp.161–2. This specific article could not be located verification, but it was referenced in Devlet, İsmail Bey Gaspıralı, pp.40–1. Tercüman, No.34, 23 Cemaziyulahir 1321 (1 Sept. 1903). The referenced issue of Tercüman was received from Yavuz Akpınar. The authors thank him for his generosity. Tercüman, No.68, Iyun 23, 1906, 13 Cemaziyelevvel 1324. Ziya Gökalp, Türkçülüğün Esasları, (Ankara: Matbuat ve İstihbarat Matbaasi, 1923). Also note the English translation of this text, Gökalp, The Principles of Turkism, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1968). Deliorman, Meşrutiyet'ten Önce Balkan Türkleri, p.145. Gökalp, Türkçülüğün Esasları. See Deliorman's article, ‘İsmail Gaspıralı ve Tercüman Gazetesi’, Türk Kültürü, Vol.VI, No.69 (1968), pp.653–8. Muvazene (Plovdiv), No.6, 24 Eylül 1313 (6 Oct. 1897). It was also emphasized that Tercüman was circulated in the Dobrudja region of Romania after 1895 in Deliorman, ‘İsmail Gaspıralı’, pp.653–8. Tercüman, No.37–1, 24 Rebiyülahir 1313 (1 Oct. 1895). Tercüman, No.37–1, 24 Rebiyülahir 1313 (1 Oct. 1895). Tercüman, No.37–1, 24 Rebiyülahir 1313 (1 Oct. 1895). Tercüman, No.33, 27 Rebiyülahir 1313 (25 Aug. 1896). The notice read: ‘We received a letter with many signatures from the Muslims of Turgovishte. They congratulated the twentieth anniversary of Tercüman, its editor, and the Muslims of Russia. In the ceremony on that occasion that will take place on May 4, this letter will be read to the audience. We are very pleased to get this letter. We greatly thank the education lovers of Turgovishte.’ Tercüman, No.14, 27 Muharrem 1321 (12 April 1903). Tuna (Ruse), No.161, 14 Mart 1322 (27 March 1906). Like Tercüman, Gaspirali's new comic journal Ha Ha Ha was printed in Bakhchesaray and began its run in April 1906. However, its publication history lasted for only five issue. Tuna (Ruse), No.331, 6 Teşrinievvel 1322 (19 Oct. 1906). It could not be determined whether or not this journal was ever published or not. Balkan (Plovdiv), No.297, 7 Teşrinievvel 1323 (20 Oct. 1907). Gaspirali planned to hold a conference in Cairo and explained his expectations for that congress. An organizing committee was formed for the Congress, and Gaspirali even began to publish the Arabic-language journal En-Nahza (or ‘Renaissance’) in order to promote it. However, due to internal political conflicts, this congress was never held. See Kirimli, National Movements, pp.161–6. Uhuvvet (Ruse), No.116, 19 Temmuz 1322 (1 Aug. 1906). Articles by Ali Kemal were published in Türk and were reprinted in both Rumeli and Uhuvvet. These articles by Ali Kemal addressed Turks of the Balkans. See Deliorman, Meşrutiyet'ten Önce Balkan Türkleri, pp.75–84, 89–116, and 135–9. Also, regarding Switzerland's Young Turk newspapers of that period, see Muammer Göçmen, İsviçre'de Jöntürk Basını ve Türk Siyasal Hayatına Etkileri, (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 1995). See Hamiyyet (Plovdiv), No.10, 8 Kanunisani 1312 (20 Jan. 1897). On the second anniversary of Tuna, it was announced that besides Bulgaria, the newspaper had readers in the Dobrudja region of Romania, Bosnia, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Kazan, Orenburg, Crete, and Egypt. Tuna (Ruse), No.301, 1 Eylül 1322 (14 Sept. 1906). See Muvazene (Plovdiv), No.29, 11 Mart 1314 (23 March 1898). See Muvazene (Plovdiv), No.51, 12 Ağustos 1314 (24 Aug. 1898). Note that similar presentations of Jadidist-endorsed and/or – written plays in association with benefits were quite common in the context of Central Asia. ‘Storytelling’ from printed sources also began to emerge as a common phenomenon. Khalid, ‘Printing, Publishing, and Reform’, pp.196–7. Tuna (Ruse), No.17, 20 Eylül 1321 (3 Oct. 1905). Rumeli (Plovdiv), No.20, 16 Nisan 1322 (29 April 1906). Note the following issues of Tuna (Ruse): No.387, 18 Kanunievvel 1322 (31 Dec. 1906); No.399, 8 Kanunisani 1322 (21 Jan. 1907); No.403, 16 Kanunisani 1322 (29 Jan. 1907); and, No.405, 18 Kanunisani 1322 (31 Jan. 1907). Tuna (Ruse), No.382, 12 Kanunievvel 1322 (25 Dec. 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.108, 9 Kanunisani 1321 (22 Jan. 1906). Balkan (Plovdiv), No.354, 19 Kanunisani 1323 (1 Feb. 1908). Balkan (Plovdiv), No.408, 22 Mart 1324 (4 April 1908). Balkan (Plovdiv), No.461, 23 Mayıs 1324 (5 June 1908). Balkan (Plovdiv), No.464, 27 Mayıs 1324 (9 June 1908). Süleyman Mirza Ayircinsky, an obvious personal and/or political adversary of Gaspirali, wrote a small book about his visit. He claimed that the reason for the visit involved a problem of local heritage and the settlement of an estate. According to his claims, Halime Sultan Hanım Bulgakova died in Simferebol in 1902. Her cousin Süleyman Mirza was her only heir. However, Mahmut Bey Bulatukov, Mehmet Bey Yaslasky, and Esma Hanım Kaytazova applied to the court to acquire shares from her estate. Ayircinsky claimed that Gaspirali visited to Ruse to testify that Suleyman Mirza had actually died much earlier than claimed and was instead burried in Ruse under false/fabricated documents. This information would reportedly aid these parties in establishing who had a claim to the estate. See Suleyman Mirza Ayircinsky, Tatar Hayatından Binikinci Gece Yahut Tercüman Muharriri Prens İsmail Bey'in Bahçesaray'dan Ruscuk'ta Mercan Mezarına Seyahati, (St. Petersburg: Abdurresit Bin Ömer İbrahimov Matbaası, no date provided). Whether these claims were true or not are unclear – and are beyond the scope of this study with respect to Gaspirali's concern for and influence among Bulgarian Turks during the historical period in question. The authors would like to thank Hakan Kirimli for allowing them the use of this book from his own library. Tuna (Ruse), No.191, 20 Nisan 1322 (3 May 1906). For more news about this congress and its decisions, see: Turan, ‘Bulgaristan'da Prenslik Döneminde Türklerin Sosyal’, pp.95–6; and, Osman Keskioğlu, Bulgaristan'da Türkler, (Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 1985), pp.99–105. See Tuna (Ruse), No.363, 18 Teşrinisani 1322 (1 Dec. 1906). See Deliorman, Meşrutiyet'ten Önce Balkan Türkleri, pp.135–9. Also, for news regarding the establishment of an Islamic Teachers' Association in the Crimea, see Tuna (Ruse), No.269, 26 Temmuz 1322 (8 Aug. 1906). Uhuvvet additionally quoted some news from Tercüman about a Tatar medrese (an Islamic religious school) students' congress and their declaration; see Uhuvvet (Ruse), No.114, 21 Haziran 1322 (4 July 1906). One letter to that effect was in Muvazene (Plovdiv), No.26, 18 Subat 1314 (2 March 1899). For others written from Dobrich, see: Muvazene (Plovdiv), No.27, 25 Subat 1313 (9 March 1898); and, No.28, 4 Mart 1314 (16 March 1898). Another such letter from Varna was in Muvazene (Plovdiv), No.29, 11 Mart 1314 (23 March 1898). Tuna (Ruse), No.185, 12 Nisan 1322 (25 April 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.191, 20 Nisan 1322 (3 May 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.214, 18 May 1322 (31 May 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.223, 29 May 1322 (11 June 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.191, 20 Nisan 1322 (3 May 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.194, 24 Nisan 1322 (7 May 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.227, 2 Haziran 1322 (15 June 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.229, 5 Haziran 1322 (18 June 1906). Tuna (Ruse), No.16, 19 Eylül 1321 (2 Oct. 1905). For further information regarding the attempts made by Bulgarian Turks to establish a political party, see Turan, ‘Bulgaristan'da Prenslik Döneminde Türklerin Sosyal’, pp.97–9. Concerning the 1905 meetings of Russian Muslims, see: Devlet, İsmail Bey Gaspıralı, pp.77–109; and, Kirimli, National Movements, pp.65–85. On concepts of non-violent resistance and survival, note James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
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