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Unity within Diversity: Foundations and Dynamics of National Identity in Iran

2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 14; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/10669920500057229

1473-9666

Hamid Ahmadi,

Jewish and Middle Eastern Studies

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1 See, for instance, Mustafa Vaziri Vaziri M 1993 Iran as Imagined Nation: The Construction of National Identity New York Paragon House [Google Scholar], Iran as Imagined Nation: The Construction of National Identity (Paragon House, 1993). The author's simplistic application of Benedict Anderson Anderson B 1983 Imagined Communities London Verso [Google Scholar]' s model to Iran encourages him to conclude that the civilization, political, and cultural legacy of Iran is reducible and attributable to the construction of an Iranian identity and image of political continuity by nineteenth century European Orientalism. For a more recent work, see Brenda Shafer Shafer B 2002 Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity Cambridge, MA Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press [Google Scholar], Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity (MIT Press, 2002), which reflects the political and strategic preoccupations of contemporary states such as Israel and the Republic of Azerbaijan and relies on the claims, materials, and sources produced mainly by Pan-Turkist circles in Baku rather than empirical research of Iranian Azerbaijan's socio-political and cultural orientations. 2 On historical sociology and its importance in social science research, see, Theda Skockpol Skockpol T 1995 Visions and Methods in Historical Sociology Cambridge Cambridge University Press [Google Scholar], ed., Visions and Methods in Historical Sociology (Cambridge University Press, 1995). 3 See, for example, Ahmad Ashraf Ashraf A 2004 Bohran-e Hoveyat-e Melli va Ghomi dar Iran [Crisis of national and ethnic identity in Iran] Ahmadi H Iran: Hoveyat, Melliat va Ghommiyat [Iran: Identity, nationality and ethnicity 133 170 Tehran Moa'seseh-ye Olum-e Ensani [Google Scholar], 'Bohran-e Hoveyyat-e Melli va Ghowmi dar Iran' in Hamid Ahmadi Ahmadi H 2004a Ghomiyat va Ghomgera'i dar Iran: Afsaneh ya vagheyyat [Ethnicity and ethnicism in Iran: Myth and reality], 4th ed. Tehran Nashr-e Ney [Google Scholar], ed., Iran: Hovveyat, Melliat va Ghowmmiyat [Iran: Identity, Nationality and Ethnicity](Tehran: Moa'sese-ye Olum-e Ensani, 1383/2004); and Firoozeh Kashani Sabet Kashani Sabet F 2000 Fiction Frontiers: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–1946 Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press [Google Scholar], Fiction Frontiers: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–1946 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000). 4 I have discussed the issue of ethnicity and ethnic politics in contemporary Iran elsewhere; see Hamid Ahmadi, 'The Politics of Ethnic Nationalism in Iran', doctoral dissertation, Department of Political Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, 1995); and the published, updated Persian version, Ghomiyat va Ghom Gera'i dar Iran: Afsaneh ya vagheyat? (Nashr-e Ney, 4th ed., 2004). 5 See, for instance, Anthony D. Smith Smith AD 1986 The Ethnic Origins of Nations Oxford Blackwell [Google Scholar], The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Blackwell, 1986); and John Alexander Armstrong Armstrong JA 1982 Nations Before Nationalism Chapel Hill, NC University of North California Press [Google Scholar], Nations before Nationalism (University of North California Press, 1982). 6 See for instance, Stephen Castles Castles S 2000 Ethnicity and Globalization London Sage [Google Scholar], Ethnicity and Globalization (Sage, 2000); and Mike Featherstone, Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Identity (Sage, 1990). 7 I have given a detailed discussion of this issue in Hamid Ahmadi Ahmadi H 1995 The Politics of Ethnic Nationalism in Iran, doctoral dissertation Department of Political Science, Carleton University Ottawa, Canada [Google Scholar], 'Jahani Shodan: Hoveyat-e Ghomi ya Hoveyat-e Melli?' [Globalization: Ethnic or National Identity?] in Faslnameh-e Motale'aate Melli, 3, 11 (Spring 1381/2002):13–17. 8 For a post-modern view of identity, see Mike Featherstone Featherstone M 1995 Undoing Culture, Globalization and Identity London Sage [Google Scholar], Undoing Culture, Globalization and Identity (Sage, 1995). 9 For feminism and identity, see Valentine M. Moghaddam Moghaddam VM 1994 Gender and Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies London Atlantic [Google Scholar], ed., Gender and Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies (Atlantic Highlands, 1994); and Undarya Tumursukh Tumursukh U 2000 Masculine construction of national identity and man-made images of Mongolian women in post-socialist Mongolia paper presented at conference on Culture of Democracy and Democratization in Israel, Eastern Europe and Beyond, Center for Russian, Central Asian and East European Studies and the Allen and Joan Bildner Center for the Study of Jewish Life, Rutgers University. 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Smith Smith AD 1990 Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Identity London Sage [Google Scholar], National Identity (Penguin Books, 1991), p. 9. 13 William Bloom Bloom W 1990 Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations Cambridge Cambridge University Press [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 52. 14 See, David Levinson and Melvin Ember Levinson D Ember M 1996 The Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology New York Henry Holt and Co [Google Scholar], eds., The Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology (Henry Holt, 1996), p. 28. 15 A. Britain, Meaning and Situations (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), pp.149–159. 16 T. K. 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Abu Muslim's origin is an issue of controversy, since he is considered to be a Kurd, a Turk, and a Persian; see further Elton L. Daniel Daniel EL 1979 The Political and Social History of Khorasan Under Abbasid Rule, 747–820 Minneapolis Biblioteque Islamica [Google Scholar], The Political and Social History of Khorasan Under Abbasid Rule 747–820 (Biblioteque Islamica, 1979), pp. 101–102. 22 In fact, a colourful, seething mass comprised of dissatisfied Arab chieftains, Persian landowners attached to the old traditions, Shi'is, Zoroastrians of different trends, besides Mazdakites (followers of the fifth century Zoroastrian priest Mazdak), and heterodox groups of every kind rallied around Abu Muslim; see further Pio Fillipani-Ronconi Ronconi PF 1978 The tradition of sacred kingship in Iran Lenczowski G Iran under the Pahlavis 51 83 Stanford, CA Hoover Institution Press [Google Scholar], 'The tradition of sacred kingship in Iran,' in George Lenczowski, ed., Iran Under the Pahlavis (Hoover Institution Press, 1978), p. 70. 23 Daniel, in Political and Social History of Khorasan, reviews existing data on these insurrections and draws current scholarly conclusions about their nature. 24 John Foran Foran J 1993 Fragile Resistance: Social Transformation in Iran from 1500 to the Revolution Boulder, CO Westview [Google Scholar] describes how different Iranian groups – Persians, Turkomans, Kurds, Azeris, and Bakhtyaris – resisted the Afghans and later participated in the army of Nadir Afshar (later Nadir Shah)against them; see further John Foran, Fragile Resistance: Social Transformation in Iran from 1500 to the Revolution (Westview, 1993), pp. 75–80; for more details on the Afghan invasion see, Laurence Lockhart Lockhart L 1958 The Fall of the Safavi Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia Cambridge Cambridge University Press [Google Scholar], The Fall of the Safavi Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1958). 25 On the British war against Iran in 1856, see Barbara English English B 1971a John Company's Last War London Collins [Google Scholar], John Company's Last War (Collins, 1971), and published in the United States as The War For a Persian Lady (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1971). 26 On this event, see Hasan-e Fasa'i Fasa'i H 1972 History of Persia under Qajar Rule trans. H. Busse New York Columbia University Press [Google Scholar], History of Persia under Qajar Rule, trans. by Heribert Busse (Columbia University Press, 1972), p. 319–335; the result of the war was the defeat of Iran and the Paris Agreement of 1857 according to which Iran had to withdraw from Herat. 27 The historical role of Azerbaijan in the Constitutional Revolution is studied by Ahmad Kasravi Kasravi A 1978 Tarikh-e Hijdah Saleh-e Azerbaijan [Eighteen years history of Aarbaijan] Tehran Amir Kabir [Google Scholar] in Tarikh-e Hijdeh Saleh-e Azerbaijan [Eighteen- year history of Azerbaijan] (Amir Kabir, 1978). 28 Among other non-Persians, Azeri Turks, Kurds, and Qashqais had significant roles. In fact, Mossadeq's National Front was led after his death by Karim Sanjabi, an Iranian Kurd; another Iranian Kurdish follower of Mossadeq was Daryush Foruhar, who established The Party of Iranian Nation, one of the most radical nationalist movements during the regime of the last shah (1941–79). Sanjabi and Foruhar became foreign minister and minister of interior, respectively, in the Provisional Government after the Revolution of 1979. 29 As Martin Van Bruinessen Bruinessen MV 1986 The Kurds between Iran and Iraq Merip Report 16 [Google Scholar] has pointed out, Kurds, as the most politicized of Iran's minorities, articulated demands that did not specifically address Kurdish issues; see Van Bruinessen, 'The Kurds between Iran and Iraq,' Merip Reports, 16 (1986): 26; see also Abdul-Rahman Qassemlu Qassemlu, A-R. 1980. The clergy have confiscated the revolution, an interview by Fred Halliday. MERIP Reports, 98 [Google Scholar], 'The Clergy Have Confiscated the Revolution,' interview with Fred Halliday, MERIP Reports, no. 98 (July-August 1980): 17. 30 See, 'Baluchi Movement Congratulates the Revolution,' FBIS FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Report- Iran) 1979 Baluchi movement congratulates the revolution. 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Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East (University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 141. 34 Rahnema-ye Ketab, 5: 827–32; on Agha Khan Kermani's ideas see, Mangol Bayat-Philip Bayat-Philip M 1980 Mirza Agha Khan Kirmani: a nineteenth century Persian nationalist Kedourie E Haim S Towards a Modern Iran: Studies in Thought, Politics and Society 64 93 London Frank Cass [Google Scholar], 'Mirza Agha Khan Kirmani: A Nineteenth century Persian Nationalist,' in Elie Kedourie and Sylvia G. Haim, eds., Towards a Modern Iran: Studies in Thought, Politics and Society (London, Frank Cass, 1980), pp. 64–93. 35 He named his journal, which was published in Persian in the Caucasus, Seyavash Asr-e Ma (Seyavash of our time); Seyavash is a popular ancient Iranian hero who was murdered by Turanians in Central Asia. See further Fereydun Adamiyat, 'Fekr-e Democrasi-ye Ejtema'i Dar Nehzat-e Mashruteyat-e Iran' [The idea of social democracy in the Iranian constitutional movement], Payman (1984): 17–18, 111–112. 36 Ervand Abrahamian Abrahamian E 1980 Kasravi: the integrative nationalist of Iran Kedourie E Haim SG Towards a Modern Iran: Studies in Thought, Politics and Society 96 132 London Frank Cass [Google Scholar], 'Kasravi: The Integrative Nationalist of Iran,' in Kedourie and Haim, p. 101. 37 Ahmad Kasravi Kasravi A 1976 Azeri Ya Zaban-e Bastan-e Azerbaijan [Azeri or the ancient language of Azerbaijan] Tehran Jar [Google Scholar], Azeri ya Zaban-e bastan-e Azerbaijan [Azeri, or the ancient language of Azerbaijan (Jar, 1355/1976). 38 Shirin Hunter Hunter S 1993 Azerbaijan: search for identity and new pattern Bremmer I Taras R Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States Cambridge Cambridge University Press [Google Scholar], 'Azerbaijan: Search for Identity and New Pattern', in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, eds., Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 235. 39 Taqi Arani Arani T 1924 Azerbaijan Farangistan September 247 254 [Google Scholar] (1902–40), an Iranian Marxist whose colleagues founded the Tudeh Party after his death in prison, was another Azeri Turk who strongly rejected local Azeri nationalism, stressed Iranian nationalism, believed in the Persian heritage of Iran, and considered Azerbaijan an integral part of Iran; see further Ramesh Farzanfar Farzanfar R 1992 Ethnic Groups and the State: Azaris, Kurds and Baluch of Iran PhD dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA [Google Scholar], 'Ethnic Groups and the State: Azaris, Kurds and Baluch of Iran,' ph. d. dissertation (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1992), p. 243; and Ervand Abrahamian, "Communism and Communalism in Iran: The Tudah and the Firqah-i Dimukrat,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 1, no. 4 (October 1970): 291–316. 40 Their parties still exist and belong to the nationalist opposition against the Islamic Republic. 41 In fact, Richard Cottam points out that several of Mossadeq's most prominent National Front followers were Kurds; see, Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, p. 74. 42 Richard Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, p. 68. 43 See Vassili Nikitine Nikitine V 1987 Kurd Va Kurdistan [Kurd and Kurdistan], trans. into Persian by M. Ghazi Tehran Niloofar [Google Scholar], Kurd va Kurdistan [Kurd and Kurdistan], trans. into Persian by Mohammad Ghazi (Tehran: Niloofar, 1987), p. 15. 44 Wimbush S. Enders Enders WS 1979 Divided Azerbaijan: nation building, assimilation and mobilization between three states McCagg WO Silver B Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers New York Praeger [Google Scholar], 'Divided Azerbaijan: Nation Building, Assimilation and Mobilization between Three States,' in William O. McCagg, and Brian Silver, eds., Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers (Praeger, 1979), p. 63. 45 John W. Limbert Limbert JW 1987 Iran at War with History Boulder, CO Westview Press [Google Scholar], Iran at War with History (Westview, 1987), pp. 47–52. 46 This quotation is from Taqi Arani, 'Azerbaijan, ya yek Masaleh Hayati va mamati Iran' [Azerbaijan or a question of Live and Death for Iran] Farangistan, no. 5 (September 1924): 247–248, reprinted in Iraj Afshar, ed,. Zabane Farsi dar Azarbaijan [Persian- farsi- Language in Azaerbaijan] (Tehran: Bonyade moghoofate Afshar, 1368), pp. 126–33. Arani is considered a founding father of Communism in Iran. 47 Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, pp. 26–27. 48 Enders, 'Divided Azerbaijan,' p. 63. 49 Even the Pahlavis were not pure Persians. The mother of Reza Shah was from the Caucasus and so was one of his wives. None of the three wives of Mohammad Reza Shah were Persians: his first wide, Fuziyeh, was an Arab from Egypt; Soraya was a Bakhtiyari Lur; and Farah Diba, his third wife, was an Azeri from Tabriz. 50 Shahanshah means the king of kings, and only those rulers who ruled all Iranian territories were called shahanshah. 51 Ali Shariati Shariati A 1984 Baz Shenasi Hoveyat-e Irani-Islami [the rediscovery of Iranian–Islamic identity] Tehran Elham [Google Scholar], Collected Works, Vol.4, Bazgasht (Elham, 1377), pp. 316–320. 52 Harit Krishna Deb Krishna Deb H 1932 India and the Persian Empire Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal NS, 29 [Google Scholar], 'India and the Persian Empire', in Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, new series, 29 (1932): 333–365. 53 Hugh Seton Watson Seton-Watson H 1977 Nations and States Boulder, CO Westview Press [Google Scholar], Nations and States, pp. 143–144. 54 Bernard Lewis Lewis B 1980 Loyalties to communities: nations and states Wise GS Issawi C Middle East Perspectives: The Next Twenty Years Princeton, NJ Darwin [Google Scholar], 'Loyalties to communities: nations and states,' in G. 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The Arabic source for this hadith is, Muhammad Abu Zohre Abu Zohre M 1960 Abu Hanifa, Hayatohoo, Asrohoo, va Araa e-hol Fighhiyya [Abu Hanifa: His life, Time and His Religious Views] Beirut Dar Al Fikr al Arabi [Google Scholar], Abu Hanifa, Hayatohoo, Asrohoo, va Araa e-hol Fighhiyya [Abu Hanifa: His life, time and religious views] (Dar Al Fikr al Arabi, 1960), pp. 240–241. 71 Zabihollah Safa Safa Z 1978 Tarikh-e Adabiyyat Dar Iran [the history of literature in Iran] Tehran Kamangir [Google Scholar], Tarikh-e Adabiyat dar Iran [History of literature in Iran] (Kamangir, 1978), 101. See also Parviz Natel Khanlari Natel Khnlari P 1995 Tarikhe Zabane Farsi [the history of Persian language] 2 Tehran Toos [Google Scholar], Tarikh-e Zaban-e Farsi [History of Persian language] vol.2 (Toos, 1374/1995), 16; Khanlari quoted this hadith from an Arabic source published in Egypt, Al-Lo'lo' al Marsoo'e Fima Ghila la Aslon Lahoo, p. 62. Some contemporary Iranian ulema have referred to this hadith; see, for example, Mohammad ibn Ma'soom Ali Zanjani Haydaji Zanjani Haydaji M ibn MA (n.d) Hashiyeh bar Manzoomeh Sabzevari [A note to Manzoomeh Sabzevari] Tehran Matbooati Ismaili [Google Scholar], Hashiyeh bar Manzoomeh Sabzevari (Matbooati Esmaili, n.d), p. 104. 72 It is interesting that the main sources for the history of the Kurds written by Kurdish authors, including the Sharafnameh, Sayrol Akraad, Hadigheye Naseriyeh, and Tuhfeye Nasri, all were written in Persian. 73 Lois Beck, among others, makes this charge in 'Revolutionary Iran and Its Tribal Peoples,' MERIP Reports, no. 87 (1980): 14–20; for an opposing view, see Hormoz Homayoon Poor Homayoon Poor H 1982 Roostahay-e Iran va Enghelab [Iranian villages and the Revolution] Ketab-e Agah Special issue, Masael-e Arzi va Dehghani [Land and peasant affairs] Tehran Agah [Google Scholar], "Roostahay-e Iran va enghelab" [Iranian villages and the Revolution], Ketab-e Agah, Special issue, Masael-e Arzi va Dehghani [Land and peasant affairs] (Agah, 1982): 382–394. 74 See further Nezam Ali Dehnavi Dehnavi NA 2004 Iranian Mohajer dar Ghafghaz [Iranian immigrants in the Caucasus] Tehran Markaz-e Asnad-e Tarikhi [Google Scholar], Iranian Mohajer dar Ghafghaz [Iranian immigrants in the Caucasus] (Markaz-e Asnad-e Tarkhi, 1383/2004). 75 Fath Ali Khan Akhond Zadeh is prominent among nationalists who adopted a hostile position toward Islam; for his views, see Reza Big Deloo Big Deloo R 2001 Bastan Gerai dar Tarikh-e Moaser-e Iran [Ancient nationalism in the contemporary history of Iran] Tehran Nashr-e Markaz [Google Scholar], Bastan Gerai dar tarikh-e Moaser-e Iran [Ancient nationalism in the contemporary history of Iran] (Nashr-e Markaz, 1380/2001), pp. 43–50. 76 For examples of these views, see Ali Muhammed Naqvi Naqvi AM n.d Islam and Nationalism Tehran Islamic Propagation Organization [Google Scholar] , Islam and Nationalism (Tehran: Islamic propagation Organization, n.d); Reza Davari Davari R 1986 Nationalism va Enqelab [Nationalism and revolution] Tehran Daftar-e Pajoohesh'ha-ye Islami [Google Scholar], Nationalism va Enghelab [Nationalism and revolution] (Daftar-e Pajoohesh'ha-ye Islami, 1365/1986); and Goruh-e Tahghighat-e Siasi-ye Islam Gorooh-e Tahghighat-e Siasi Islam 2002 Moa,alefe Haye Hovveyat-e Melli dar Iran [Constitutive factors of national identity in Iran] Tehran Pajooheshgah-e Olum-e Ensani [Google Scholar], Moa'alefe Haye Hoveyat-e Melli dar Iran [Constitutive factors of national identity in Iran] (Tehran: Pajooheshgah-e Olum-e Ensani, 1381/ 2002). 77 Ali Shariati is the most prominent exponent of this view; see his Baz Shenasi Hoveyat-e Irani-Islami [Rediscovery of the Iranian-Islamic identity] (Elham, 1363/1984). 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