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First Lessons in Neo-Colonialism: The Personalisation of Relations between African Politicians and French Officials in sub-Saharan Africa, 1956–66

2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 35; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03086530701667559

ISSN

1743-9329

Autores

Alexander Keese,

Tópico(s)

African history and culture studies

Resumo

Abstract In scholarly debates, ‘French neo-colonialism’ is defined as the social history of relations between Francophile African elites and French decision-makers in African policy, and it is frequently interpreted as a sinister manipulation of rather passive African populations. Exploring the newly accessible French archival documents, it is now possible to understand better how French officials became neo-colonial players, from the frustration of the last days of colonialism, to a new model of friend and foe in sub-Saharan Africa. A complex and highly emotional interplay of relations with African leaders accounted for the seemingly rational ‘neo-colonialist’ behaviour of French civil servants from 1955 at least to the decade after decolonisation. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Tony Chafer for his comments at an earlier stage of this work. A part of the work on the sources was made possible through grants from the Deutscher Akademischer Auslandsdienst (DAAD) and the German Historical Institute in Paris (DHI-P). Notes 1. See, for example, Lhomme, Fabrice, ‘Un ancien PDG d'Elf entendu comme témoin assisté au sujet d'une commission suspecte.’ Le Monde, 1 April 2005. 2. Clark, ‘Neo-Colonial Context’, 171, 174–75; Verschave, Noir silence, 341–46. 3. Rouvez, Disconsolate Empires, 31. 4. Chafer, ‘Franco-African Relations’, 362. See also Huliaris, ‘“Anglosaxon Conspiracy”’, 605–07. 5. Golan, ‘Certain Mystery’, 6–8. 6. Verschave, Françafrique, 86–87. 7. Marchesin, ‘Politique africaine’, 100–03; Martin, ‘Continuity and Change’, 5–12; Pean, Affaires Africaines, 42–43. 8. Foccart and Gaillard, Foccart parle. 9. See Geneste, ‘Papiers Foccart’, 157–62. 10. Dimier, ‘New Start’, 53–54. 11. The ‘classical studies’ are Morgenthau, Political Parties, 66; Mortimer, France and the Africans, 233; Ki-Zerbo, Histoire, 508; Person, ‘French West Africa’, 161; Benoist, Afrique occidentale française, 298; even schematically Panter-Brick, ‘Independence’, 75. 12. Keese, ‘“Quelques satisfactions”’, passim. This article sharpens, concerning the position of the French actors, the interpretation given by Chafer, End of Empire, 216–17. The other attempts to explain the decolonisation process in French sub-Saharan Africa focus too exclusively on the role of African labour, see Cooper, Decolonization, 407–13; or on the role of the youth movements, see Bancel, ‘Acculturation’, 429–38. 13. As examples, see, on Senegal, Lami, French Governor in Senegal, to Jaquet, French Overseas Minister (no. 961/DIR.CAB), 16 Aug. 1957, 2–3, FM 1AffPol/493, Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence (CAOM); on Ivory Coast, [Note commenting on] Télégramme n° 55/sécret du 1.8.1958 du Gouverneur de Nattes, French Overseas Ministry, Directorate of Political Affairs (without number), without date, 1, FM 1AffPol/493, CAOM; on Niger, Synthèse Politique, Territoire du Niger, Avril–Mai–Juin 1958, Rollet, French Governor in Niger, to Cornut-Gentille, French Overseas Minister, and Messmer, High-Commissioner of French West Africa (no. 248/CAB/CF/2), 30 June 1958, 14 and 18, FM AffPol/2233/2, CAOM; on Guinea Observations Complémentaires du Chef de Territoire, Ramadier, French Governor of Guinea (without number), without date (1958), FM 1AffPol/3418, CAOM. 14. Synthèse Politique concernant les Territoires d'Outre-Mer et les Territoires sous tutelle pendant le mois de Mai 1957, French Overseas Ministry, Directorate of Political Affairs (without number), without date, 3, FM 1AffPol/2151/2, CAOM. 15. African party leaders understood that the contradictions of the loi-cadre had given them a space for action never intended by the French, thus the editors of the propagandist pamphlet of the Bureau Politique National of the Parti Démocratique de Guinée, the then Unique Party of Guinea, in 1963, see Analyse du Rapport Politique d'Orientation du B.P.N. présenté par le Secrétaire Général du P.D.G. (without number), without date [1963], 2, Direction Afrique-Levant (DAL), Guinée, 1960–1965, 47, Archives Diplomatiques, French Foreign Ministry, Paris (MAE), Direction Afrique-Levant (DAL), Guinée, 1960–1965, 47. 16. Note by Plantey to Pignon, Director of Political Affairs, French Overseas Ministry (without number), 5 Aug. 1958, FM 1AffPol/493, CAOM. 17. Note – La présente note a pour objet de présenter quelques réflexions sur le document ‘Evolution des T.O.M.’, without signature (without number), Jan. 1958, 5, FM 1AffPol/2266/1, CAOM. 18. Charles, ‘Transformation’, 107–08. 19. Messmer, Note en réponse à la Note en forme de rapport de Monsieur l'inspecteur Sanner (without number), 15 Oct. 1955, 1, FM 1AffPol/491, CAOM. 20. Telegram from Mauberna to Cornut-Gentille (no. 239–41), 27 Aug. 1958, 1, FM 1AffPol/2181/6, CAOM. 21. Telegram from Mauberna to Cornut-Gentille (no. 397–98), 22 Sept. 1958, FM 1AffPol/2181/6, CAOM; Telegram from Cornut-Gentille to Messmer (no. 365), 20 Sept. 1958, DAL, Guinée, 9, MAE. 22. Telegram from Mauberna to Cornut-Gentille (no. 251–57), 31 Aug. 1958, 2, FM 1AffPol/2181/6, CAOM; Berthet to Cornut and Messmer (no. 147), without date, arrives at 26 Nov. 1958, FM 1AffPol/2181/7, CAOM. 23. Telegram from Risterucci to Cornut-Gentille (no. 20.012), 8 Oct. 1958, 2, 7, DAL, Guinée, 10, MAE; Coopération Franco-Guinéenne, Hessel (without number), 18 May 1959, 1–2, 4, DAL, Guinée, 14, MAE. 24. Transmission de Renseignements: République de Guinée - Période du 5 au 14 Février, Jean Rolin, Bureau d'Etudes d'Outre-Mer (no. 353/B.E), 27 Feb. 1959, 37, DAL, Guinée, 6, MAE. 25. Telegram from Bargues to Cornut-Gentille (no. 603–07), 21 Dec. 1958, DAL, Guinée, 10, MAE; Telegram of Boyer to Cornut-Gentille (no. 7), 9 Jan. 1959, DAL, Guinée, 9, MAE; Telegram from Siraud to French Foreign Ministry, Direction Afrique-Levant (no. 911), 18 Dec. 1959, DAL, Guinée, 14, MAE; Telegram from Siraud to French Foreign Ministry, Direction Afrique-Levant (no. 455/460), 10 May 1960, 1–2, DAL, Guinée, 43, MAE; Agence Guinéenne de Presse, Nouvelles de la République: Revelations sur l'Affaire du Complot Anti-Guinéen (without number), 28 July 1960, DAL, Guinée, 43, MAE. 26. Fiche sur la Guinée (no. 4.352/EMGDN/REN/CER/D/S), French Office of Prime Minister, Etat-Major Général de la Défense Nationale (EMGDN), Division of Renseignement, 7 April 1959, 1, DAL, Guinée, 6, MAE; Max, French Political Councillor of AOF, to Janot, General Secretary of the Communauté (no. 01126/C.P.), 8 April 1959, 1–2, DAL, Guinée, 7, MAE; Note: Guinée (without number), Henry, Director of Direction Afrique-Levant, 19 June 1959, 4, DAL, Guinée, 6, MAE; Note: La Guinée – Situation Intérieure (without number), French Foreign Ministry, Direction Afrique-Levant, 24 Sept. 1959, 1–2, DAL, Guinée, 6, MAE. 27. Telegram from Cornut-Gentille to Messmer (no. 447–48), 2 Oct. 1958, DAL, Guinée, 9, MAE; Fiche sur la Guinée (no. 4.352/EMGDN/REN/CER/D/S), Office of French Prime Minister, EMGDN, Division of Renseignement, 7 April 1959, 5, DAL, Guinée, 6, MAE. 28. Situation Actuelle au Mali (without number), Wibaux, French High Commissioner in Bamako, Mali, 2 Sept. 1959, 3, Directions des Affaires Africaines et Malgaches (DAM), Mali, 2518, MAE. 29. Siraud, French Acting High Commissioner in Conakry, to French Foreign Ministry, Direction Afrique-Levant (no. 456/AL), 7 Oct. 1959, DAL, Guinée, 6, MAE. 30. Rapport Mensuel: Période du 25 Mars au 25 Avril 1959 (no. 135), Lami to Foyer, 29 April 1959, 2–4, FM 1AffPol/2266/6, CAOM. 31. Problèmes des Fédérations Primaires en Afrique Occidentale Française (no. 2006), Debay, Inspecteur Général de la France d'Outre-Mer, Contrôle Financier de l'AOF, 31 Dec. 1958, 24–25, FM 1AffPol/2266/5, CAOM. 32. Telegram from Masson to Janot and Messmer (no. 32–34), 22 Jan. 1959, 1, FM 1AffPol/2181/4, CAOM; Telegram from Masson to Janot and Messmer (no. 40–42), 27 Jan. 1959, 1, FM 1AffPol/2181/4, CAOM. 33. Messmer to Cornut-Gentille (no. 404/CP), 10 Nov. 1958, 1–2, FM 1AffPol/2181/3, CAOM. 34. Telegram from Tirant to Bonfils (no. 68–70), 14 April 1959, DAM, Dahomey, 1184, MAE; Motion de Censure, Lozès, Degbey, Docké, Aplogan and other UDD MPs, 28 Oct. 1960. In Annexe I: La Crise Politique Dahoméenne (Recueil N° 105), without date, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 35. Note de Renseignements: Politique intérieure au Dahomey: Préparation aux élections du 27 Novembre 1960 (S.S.E.C. Dahomey - B/2) (no. 3178/SSEC/SE/800.378), Office of French Prime Minister, EMGDN, Poitevin, General Director of the External Security of the Communauté, 26 Oct. 1960, 2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from French Embassy in Cotonou to Secretary of State for Communauté Relations (no. 129), 11 April 1961, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from French Embassy in Cotonou to Secretary of State for Communauté Relations (no. 181–84), 29 May 1961, 1–2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Tirant to Foyer and Foccart (no. 282–83), 2 Nov. 1960, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 36. Ageron, ‘De Gaulle’, 707–08. 37. Note sur la situation politique dans la Fédération du Mali (without number), General Secretariat of the Communauté, Directorate of General Affairs, 18 Aug. 1960, 6–7, DAM, Mali, 2518, MAE. 38. See Foltz, French West Africa, 185; Brasseur, ‘L'éclatement’, 401–09. 39. Compte Rendu d'une conversation entre M. de Boislambert, Haut Représentant de la France à Dakar et le Général Fourquet (without number), 22 Aug. 1960, 1–2, Fonds Jacques Foccart, Fonds ‘Privé’, 230 (AG/5(FPR)/230), Archives Nationales Françaises, Paris (AN). 40. Wibaux to Couve de Murville (no. 258/S.P.), 18 Sept. 1962, DAM, Mali, 2522, MAE; Note: Démarches du Gouvernement Malien au sujet de l'assistance française aux rebelles Touareg (without number), French Foreign Ministry, North African Department, Mission de liaison avec l'Algérie, without date, 2, DAM, Mali, 2522, MAE. 41. L'action soviétique en Afrique (no. 377/EMGDN/REN/DIF/S), Conférence de Renseignements sur l'Afrique – Reggan – 25 au 19 janvier 1961, Tome 1, without date – de Pourichkevitch, Chef de Bataillon, EMGDN, 14–15, FM 1AffPol/2245/3, CAOM. 42. Lanne, ‘Comparaison’, 163–67. 43. Kalck, Histoire Centrafricaine, 300; Valette, ‘Afrique équatoriale française’, 324. 44. Bourges, High Commissioner in Former French Equatorial Africa, to Risterucci, French High Commissioner in Gabon (no. 748/H.C.G.), 27 May 1959, 1, Fonds Libreville 1, Centre des Archives Diplomatiques de Nantes (CADN); Bourges to Léon M'Ba, Prime Minister of Gabon (no. 744/H.C.G.), without date, Fonds Libreville 1, CADN. 45. Note de Renseignements: Elections Présidentielles au Congo (S.S.E.C. Brazzaville) (no. 800.051/SSEC/SE), Mauriat, Office of French Prime Minister, Etat-Major Général de la Défense Nationale (EMGDN), Sécurité Externe de la Communauté, without date, 1–2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Cabinet de Fulbert Youlou, 12 Dec. 1962, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Rapport de Tournée (no. 230/MTP), Opangault, Congolese Minister of Public Works, 27 July 1962, 2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Telegram from Rossard, French Ambassador in Congo-Brazzaville, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 168/169), 5 April 1962, MAE, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764; Telegram from Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 174), 6 April 1962, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Telegram from Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 627–31), 25 Nov. 1962, 1–2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Youlou to Opangault (no. 326/P.R.), 10 March 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Opangault to Youlou (without number), 20 March 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 145/DAM), 20 May 1963, 2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Jean Garnier des Garets, Acting French High Commissioner in Congo-Brazzaville, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 72/DAM), 22 March 1963, 2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 108/DAM), 20 April 1963, 1–3, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 46. Telegram from Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 230–31), 7 May 1963, 1–2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 47. Garnier des Garets to French Secretary of State of Foreign Affairs (no. 242/C1), 9 Feb. 1962, 1, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 48. Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 101/DAM), 17 April 1963, 2–3, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 49. Telegram from Rossard to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 350–52), 13 June 1963, 1–2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 50. Telegram from des Garets to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 428/430), 24 July 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. See also Appel à l'insurrection générale congolais[e] (without number), anonymous, without date, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE as an example for the various similar pamphlets. 51. Telegram from des Garets to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 447), 7 Aug. 1963, 1, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 52. Telegram from des Garets to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 466/468), 12 Aug. 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 53. French Ministry of National Defence to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 140947Z), 13 Aug. 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 54. Des Garets to Soutou, Head of African Department, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, French Foreign Ministry (no. 470/471), 13 Aug. 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 55. Telegram from des Garets to Soutou (no. 485/487), 14 Aug. 1963, 1, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 56. République du Congo-Brazzaville: petit Who is Who pour les incidents de Brazzaville (no. 284/DAM), French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 13 Aug. 1963, 3, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Telegram from Gruffaz, French Ambassador in Congo-Léopoldville, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 879/881), 14 Aug. 1963, 1, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 57. Des Garets to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 495/496), 14 Aug. 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 58. Telegram from Merillon representing Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, French Foreign Ministry, to des Garets (no. 855), 14 Aug. 1963, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE; Telegram from des Garets to Merillon (no. 499/500), 15 Aug. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 59. Telegram from des Garets to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 501/502), 15 Aug. 1963, 1, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 60. Interventions personnelles du Général Kergaravat auprès du Président Youlou au cours de la Journée du 15 Août 1963 (without number), des Garets, without date, 1, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 61. Telegram from Carbouat, substituting Soutou, to Koscziusko-Morizet, French Ambassador in Congo-Léopoldville (no. 636), 27 March 1965, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1769, MAE; Telegram from Koscziusko-Morizet to Soutou (no. 627/33), 29 March 1965, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1769, MAE; Note pour le Service du Budget, de la Comptabilité et des Affaires Techniques (no. 371/CM), Michel Brochard, 25 Jan 1968, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1769, MAE. 62. La crise congolaise (no. 250/DAM), Rossard, 23 Aug. 1963, 10–11, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 63. Synthèse: Brazzaville (no. 52/63), Rossard, Dec. 1963, 1, 3, DAM, Congo-Brazzaville, 1764, MAE. 64. Telegram from Bernardu, acting French Ambassador in Dahomey, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 329/333), 14 Oct. 1961, 2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Dupont, French Ambassador in Dahomey, to Sauvagnargues, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, French Foreign Ministry (no. 405/07), 5 Dec. 1961, 1, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 65. Dupont to Couve de Murville (no. 99/SE), 4 Aug. 1962, 2–4, 7, 9–10, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 66. Dupont to French Foreign Ministry, Cabinet of Secretary of State (no. 97/SE/A-MAE), 27 April 1963, 2–3, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; République du Dahomey (without number), French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 3 July 1963, 3–4, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 67. Dupont to French Foreign Ministry, Cabinet of the Minister (no. 213/CM/A/MAE), 5 Sept. 1963, 4–5, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Dupont to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 340–44), 8 Sept. 1963, 1, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 68. Telegram from Lustig, Acting French Ambassador in Dahomey, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 406–11), 21 Oct. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 414–15), 22 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 416–20), 22 Oct. 1963, 1, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 69. Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 423/424), 23 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 70. Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 425/427), 23 Oct. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 71. Telegram from Picheloup, French Ambassador in Niger, to Soutou (no. 474–77), 24 Oct. 1963, 1, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 72. Paoletti, General Secretary of Union Générale des Travailleurs du Dahomey (UGTD), to Presidency of the Assemblée Nationale of Dahomey (no. 390/UGTD), 17 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 269/DAM/C1/MAE), 25 Oct. 1963, 1–2, 4, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 73. Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 447–48), 27 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 74. Telegram from Lustig to Soutou (no. 445–46), 26 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 452), 27 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 75. Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 453/459), 27 Oct. 1963, 2–3, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (without number), 28 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 76. Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (without number), 28 Oct. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 469/475), 28 Oct. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 77. Note: Chronologie de la Crise Politique au Dahomey (21–28 octobre 1963) (without number), French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, without date, 8, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Telegram from Lustig to Soutou (no. 482–84), 29 Oct. 1963, 1, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE; Note: situation politique du Dahomey (no. 401/DAM/2), French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 4 Nov. 1963, 2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 78. Telegram from Lustig to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 532), 31Oct. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 79. [Situation au Dahomey] (without number), Cabinet of de Gaulle, 1 Dec. 1963, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 80. Fiche [sur le passage de M. de Lipkowsky à Cotonou] (without number), French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 1 Dec. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Dahomey, 1181, MAE. 81. Levasseur to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 09/DAM), 12 Jan. 1966, 2–3, DAM, Haute-Volta, 2260, MAE. 82. Keese, ‘Evolution’, 162–63; Bernault, Démocraties ambiguës, 300–02. 83. Note sur la situation et les partis politiques au Gabon (without number), French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 24 Oct. 1961, 1–3, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 84. Risterucci, French Ambassador in Gabon, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 52/CAB.2), 23 March 1962, 1–3, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 85. Cousseran, French Ambassador in Gabon, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 6/CAB), 23 Jan. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 86. Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 19/DAM.), 6 Feb. 1963, 1–2, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 87. Hourcaillou, substituting Cousseran, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no.° 76/DAM), 25 March 1963, 1, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 88. French High Representation in Gabon to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 7/DAM), 6 Jan. 1964, 3, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE; Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 33), 10 Feb. 1964, 1, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 89. Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (without number), 18 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 90. Le Coup d'Etat du 18 Février (no. 81/DAM), Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 27 Feb. 1964, 1–2, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. On Mombo, see also Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 26), 22 Jan. 1963, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 91. Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 42), 18 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 92. Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 43), 18 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 93. Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 46), 18 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE; Telegram from Soutou, substituting de Carbonnel, Head of Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, French Foreign Ministry, to Cousseran (no. 88/89), 18 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 94. Telegram from Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 54), 19 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 95. Telegram from Soutou, substituting de Carbonnel, to Cousseran (no. 92), 19 Feb. 1964, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE; Telegram from Soutou, substituting de Carbonnel, to Cousseran (no. 107/11), 20 Feb. 1964, 1, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 96. Le Coup d'Etat du 18 Février (no. 81/DAM), Cousseran to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs, 27 Feb. 1964, 3–5, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. Péan, Affaires, tells us another story, but one which is not convincing compared to French archival material, see 47–53. 97. La vie politique au Gabon de 1946 à 1966 (no. 162/DAM.), French Embassy in Gabon, 10 Aug. 1966, 56, Fonds Libreville 3, CADN. 98. Telegram from Delauney, French Ambassador in Gabon, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (no. 376–78), 7 Dec. 1966, DAM, Gabon, 2078, MAE. 99. Synthèse Mensuelle pour le mois de Novembre 1960 (no. 459/CAB2), Risterucci, 8 Dec. 1960, 11, FM 1AffPol/2243, CAOM. 100. Gérard L'Hote, Diplomatic Councillor of the Government of Niger, to French Foreign Ministry, Directorate of African and Malagasy Affairs (without number), 27 Jan. 1964, 1–6, DAM, Niger, 2811, MAE. 101. Note sur la Communauté (without number), Doustin, 20 Feb. 1961, 1, DAM, Tchad, 3385, MAE.

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