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‘Make Sure They Count Nicely This Time’: The Politics of Elections and Election Observing in Zimbabwe

2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 43; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/14662040500151010

1743-9094

Sara Rich Dorman,

African studies and sociopolitical issues

Abstract This article examines the controversy surrounding Zimbabwe's elections in 2000 and 2002. It situates these elections against Zimbabwe's experiences of elections since 1980. It argues that the conditions for this controversy emerged from the institutions and practices that developed in Zimbabwe from the time of independence. At the same time, election observers – influenced both by criticism of earlier observation missions in Africa and international policy concerns – were positioned to make an example of the Zimbabwe elections. The Zimbabwe elections became an international crisis point not simply because of observer reports or electoral fraud, but because of the interactions between Zimbabwe's domestic politics and external relationships. Acknowledgments This article is based on research conducted in Zimbabwe between 1995 and 2001 while I was studying for a DPhil at the University of Oxford, but was written in Oxford, Asmara and Edinburgh. Abdul Raufu Mustapha is responsible for encouraging me to write this article in the first place. Takura Zhangazha provided invaluable research assistance. Many other Zimbabweans contributed directly and indirectly to the article's content. Thanks also to the Commonwealth and Comparative Politics reviewers for constructive advice. The views expressed are my own. Notes 1. 'Leave Zimbabwe alone: West told', Herald, 28 Feb. 2002. 2. OAU Observer Mission, 'OAU Endorses "Free and Fair" Zimbabwe Presidential Poll', Press Release, 13 March 2002. 3. 'Preliminary Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group to the Presidential Election in Zimbabwe 9–10 March 2002', 14 March 2002. 4. Paul Themba Nyathi, 'Will Zimbabwe's friends recognise poll outcome?' Zimbabwe Independent, 7 Dec. 2001. 5. Research notes 25 June 2000. 6. For a detailed analysis of this process see: Liisa Laakso, 'When Elections are just a Formality', in Michael Cowen and Liisa Laakso (eds.), Multi-party Elections in Africa (Oxford: James Currey, 2002). 7. Tandeka Nkiwane, 'Opposition Politics in Zimbabwe: The Struggle within the Struggle', in Abdebayo Olukoshi (ed.), The Politics of Opposition in Africa (Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1998), 92. 8. 'Magoche faction launches democratic party', Sunday Mail, 29 Sept. 1991, 1; 'ZUM announces new executive', Herald, 30 Oct. 1991, 5; 'Who is who in ZUM', Sunday Mail, 10 Nov. 1991, 1. 9. Interview, Isaac Manyemba, Information Secretary, UP, 16 June 1997. 10. Dongo v. Mwashita & ORS 13 & 27 July and 10 & 30 Aug. 1995 Judgement No. HH-106-95, ZLR 1995 (2) 228 (H); Interview Margaret Dongo, ZUD, 17 June 1997. 11. Interview, Margaret Dongo, ZUD, 17 June 1997; Interview Kempton Makamure, ZUD, 16 June 1997; 'Dongo launches political party', Sunday Mail, 20 Dec. 1998 provides a surprisingly detailed and sympathetic portrait of Dongo's agenda. Kempton Makamure, 'It's time we graduated from personality politics', Independent, 28 May 1999. 12. 'ZUD claims CIO infiltration', Standard, 23 May 1999; Makamure, 'It's time we graduated from personality politics'; 'Things fall apart: Margaret Dongo, Kempton Makamure part ways', Parade, Sept. 1999, 3, 43. 13. 'CIO claims victory for splitting Dongo's party', Independent, 16 July 1999. 14. For discussion of the significance of the referendum, see Sara Rich Dorman, 'NGOs and the Constitutional Debate in Zimbabwe: From Inclusion to Exclusion', Journal of Southern African Studies, 29/4 (2003), 845–63. 15. Dorman, 'NGOs and the Constitutional Debate in Zimbabwe', esp. 856–63; see also Jocelyn Alexander and JoAnn McGregor, 'Elections, Land and the Politics of Opposition in Matabeleland', Journal of Agrarian Change, 1/3 (2001), 510–33; JoAnn McGregor, 'The Politics of Disruption: War Veterans and the Local State in Zimbabwe', African Affairs, 101/402 (2002), 9–37; Henning Melber (ed.), Zimbabwe's Presidential Elections 2002 (Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2002); John Makumbe, 'Zimbabwe's Hijacked Election', Journal of Democracy, 13/4 (2002), 87–101. 16. 'Muzorewa arrested', Herald, 2 Nov. 1983, 1; 'Why Muzorewa being detained – Premier', Herald, 4 Nov. 1983. 17. 'New grounds for the detention of Muzorewa', Herald, 5 Nov. 1983, 1. 18. 'Bishop's Zaire link exposed', Herald, 19 Nov. 1983, 1. 19. See, for instance, Sam Moyo, The Land Question in Zimbabwe (Harare: SAPES, 1995), 257; 'Churu Farm: The Land Blues Continue', Southern African Political and Economic Monthly, 7/1 (Oct. 1993), 9–11. 20. 'Sithole refused trial date in plot to kill Mugabe', Sapa-AFP, 1 June 1996. 21. 'Sithole says he is innocent of treason charges', Independent, 27 June 1997, 1. 22. 'Farmers, traders deny backing ZUM', Herald, 9 March 1990, 1; 'ZUM Sees nothing wrong in getting aid from anyone', Herald, 12 March 1990, 1. 23. 'General Election a real test for unity – President', Herald, 17 March 1990, 1, 5. 24. 'Tekere plotting coup', Herald, 19 March 1990, 1. 25. 'Farmers, traders deny backing ZUM', Herald, 9 March 1990, 1; 'Farm leaders and business back president and party', Herald, 16 March 1990, 1, 7. 26. John Makumbe and Daniel Compagnon, Behind the Smokescreen: The Politics of Zimbabwe's 1995 General Elections (Harare: University of Zimbabwe, 2000), 220. 27. Interview, Fidelis Mhashu, 17 June 1997. 28. For a review of amnesties given for politically motivated violence see: Amani Trust, 'Impunity in Zimbabwe', 11 Oct. 2000. 29. Norma Kriger, 'ZANU(PF) Strategies in General Elections, 1980–2000: Discourse and Coercion', African Affairs, 104/414 (2005), 2. 30. Ibid., 32. 31. 'No one-party state by law – President', Herald, 28 Sept. 1990, 1; 'No move on one-party issue', Herald, 3 Oct. 1990, 1. 32. Laakso, 'When elections are just a formality', 333. 33. Ibid., 333, 334; Jonathan Moyo, Voting for Democracy: Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe (Harare: University of Zimbabwe, 1992), 77–8, 149. 34. Makumbe and Compagnon, 'Behind the Smokescreen', 69–70. 35. Maxie Matavaire, 'Elections free, not fair', Sunday Gazette, 23 April 1995; Ramson Muzondo, '1995 elections unfair', Sunday Gazette, 13 Aug. 1995; 'Election was unfair: ZCC', Herald, 21 Aug. 1995, and 'State Press snaps at watchdog's "unfair poll" verdict', Horizon, July 1995, 9. 36. Research notes, Supreme Court of Zimbabwe, 21 July 1997; Interview, Priscilla Misihairambwi, 18 June 1997; 'Court rules Misihairabwi had right to contest poll', Herald, 8 Aug. 1997, 1, 17. 37. Fidelis George Mhashu v. Tichakunda Chiroodza & Chitungwiza Town Council & Andrew Jiri & ZANU (PF) & Minister of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development. High Court Judgement HH 43-97; Interview Fidelis Mhashu, 17 June 1997. 38. Moyo, Voting for Democracy, 147. 39. 'ESC Sworn in', Herald, 7 July 1994; 'Political parties lambast poll team', Daily Gazette, 8 July 1994; 'Commission now better equipped to supervise poll', Herald, 27 March 1995; 'Matchaba Hove blasts poll commission', Daily News, 24 Oct. 2001. 40. ZCC, Annual report 1994–1995, 5 July 1995, 56; Research notes, ZCC Election briefing, 20 June 2000. 41. 'Misihairabwi joins MDC', Standard, 5 March 2000; 'ZUD official defects to MDC', Mirror, 24 March 2000; 'Mhashu to contest in Chitungwiza East', Standard, 20 Feb. 2000. 42. 'Recommendations on electoral conduct made', Herald, 18 Feb. 1999, 11; 'ESC concerned with by-election delays', Herald, 22 Feb. 1999, 6. 43. 'Case for an independent electoral body', Mirror, 17 Sept. 1999, 6; 'Polls conduct taxes man of the cloth's patience', Financial Gazette, 30 Sept. 1999, 3; 'ESC members protest', Financial Gazette, 30 March 2000. 44. 'ESC members protest', Financial Gazette, 30 March 2000. 45. 'ESC hamstrung: parties', Daily News, 29 May 2000. 46. 'Gula-Ndebele tipped to head ESC', Independent, 9 June 2000. 47. 'Army deployed to supervise poll process', Independent, 8 Feb. 2002 48. EU Election Observation Mission, Report of the EU Election Observation Mission on the Parliamentary Elections which took place in Zimbabwe on 24th and 25th June 2000, chapter 3, 10. 49. Forum for Democracy in Zimbabwe, The state of the voter's roll: preliminary findings local authority elections (1999). Interviews, Rashida Fazilahmed, FODEZI, 8 Oct. 1999; Dr Christopher Mushonga, FODEZI, 8 Oct. 1999. 50. See for instance, EU Election Observation Mission, Report of the EU Election Observation Mission, chapter 3, 10–11. 51. 'Inspection of voters roll extended', Herald, 11 Dec. 2001. 52. 'Vote scam exposed', Financial Gazette, 7 March 2002; 'Election rigged on a massive scale – ZESN', Independent, 14 March 2002; 'Further allegations of Zanu PF rigging', Daily News, 7 March 2002. 53. Government of Zimbabwe Electoral (Presidential Election) (No. 2) Notice, 2002SI 14B/2002; GOZ. Electoral (Presidential Election) (No. 3) Notice, 2002 SI 41A/2002; 'Mugabe in last-ditch poll fraud', Independent, 8 March 2002. 54. See, for instance, 'Israeli-made voters cards cost a fortune', Sunday Gazette, 26 March 1995, 1, 3. 55. 'Villagers adopt new survival strategies to avoid beatings', Standard, 18 June 2000; 'War vets impound farm employees' identity cards', Daily News, 20 June 2000; 'Militia seize hundreds of ID cards', Independent, 8 Feb. 2002. 56. 'No new IDs until presidential poll', Financial Gazette, 22 Nov. 2001; 'New ID law targets opposition', Financial Gazette, 24 Jan. 2002. 57. 'Mudede fails to clarify voter registration requirement', Daily News, 3 Dec. 2001. 58. 'Government to contest High Court ruling', Herald, 29 Jan. 2002. 59. GOZ, Citizenship of Zimbabwe Amendment Act, 2001 (No. 12 of 2001); 'Last minute rush', Herald, 5 Jan. 2002. 60. 'Gula-Ndebele opposes plans to amend electoral laws', Daily News, 3 Jan. 2002. 61. 'Mudede ordered not to tamper with voters' roll', Daily News, 4 Jan. 2002. 62. GOZ, Electoral Act (Modification) (No. 2) Notice, 2002; Statutory Instrument 42B of 2002. 63. GOZ, Electoral Act (Modification) Notice, 2002 Statutory Instrument 41D of 2002. 64. 'Thousands won't vote despite renouncing British citizenship', Daily News, 4 Feb. 2002. 65. 'Sir Garfield Todd loses right to vote', Daily News, 13 Feb. 2002. 66. 'Hundreds missing from voters' roll', Financial Gazette, 28 Feb. 2002. 67. 'Election rigged on a massive scale – ZESN', Independent, 14 March 2002. 68. GOZ, Government Gazette, 7 June 2000. 69. 'Lawyers attack electoral act amendment on postal votes', Daily News, 20 June 2000. 70. GOZ, Electoral Act (Modification) Notice, 2002 Statutory Instrument 41D of 2002. 71. 'MDC wins case', Daily News, 16 Aug. 2000. 72. 'Opposition cried foul over postal ballots', Daily News, 22 June 2000. 73. 'Massive vote fraud alleged in Mutare central', Daily News, 27 June 2000; 'Irregularities discovered on postal ballots from DRC', Herald, 27 June 2000. 74. GOZ, Election (Amendment) Regulations, 2000 (number 7) Statutory Instrument 161A of 2000; see also 'Amendments to electoral act gazetted', Herald, 21 June 2000, 10. 75. Research notes, 20 June 2000. 76. 'ESC loses case over polls', Herald, 22 June 2000. 77. GOZ, 'Zimbabwe Parliamentary Elections 2000: Accreditation of elections', Press Release, Department of Information, 20 June 2000. 78. Research Notes, 20–22 June 2000; ZCC, Report of Ecumenical Peace Observer Mission, n.d., 9; 'UK-sponsored observers barred', Herald, 19 June 2000; '216 more election observers barred', Herald, 21 June 2000; 'Government bars 40 US observers', Daily News, 21 June 2000. 79. 'Gula-Ndebele opposes plans to amend electoral laws', Daily News, 3 Jan. 2002. 80. 'Government to bar poll observers from "hostile states", says Chinamasa', Daily News, 26 Nov. 2001. 81. 'Poll observers invited', Herald, 29 Jan. 2002. 82. Personal communication, 26 April 2002. 83. Some groups refused in 1995, because there was no guarantee of independence. See Makumbe and Compagnon, Behind the Smokescreen, 230–32. 84. 'ZCC starts training election monitors', Mirror, 6 Dec. 1999. 85. 'AG deplores recruitment of monitors', Sunday Mail, 18 June 2000, 4. 86. GOZ, Election (Amendment) Regulations, 2000 (number 8)) Statutory Instrument 180A of 2000. 87. ZCC, 2000 Parliamentary Elections Report, n.d., n.p., Section 2.3. 88. EU, Final report, chapter 2, 9. 89. ZCC, 2000 Parliamentary Elections Report, Section 5.4. 90. Research Notes, 23–25 June 2000; Patrick Bond, Notes from Manicaland. Unpublished MS, June 2000. 91. 'CCJPZ blames Zanu PF for pre-election violence', Standard, 1 Oct. 2000; 'ESC divided over election report', Independent, 13 Oct. 2000. 92. 'Govt to ban churches, NGOs from educating voters', Africa Church Information Service, 13 July 2001; 'Statutory body to educate voters', Sunday Mail, 1 July 2001. 93. 'NGOs free to educate voters – ESC', Financial Gazette, 31 Jan. 2002. 94. 'MDC wins poll case', Daily News, 28 Feb. 2002. 95. GOZ, Electoral (Amendment) Regulations, 2002 (No. 13), Statutory Instrument 41B of 2002. 96. Brian Raftopoulos, 'Briefing: Zimbabwe's 2002 Presidential Election', African Affairs, 101/3 (2002), 420. 97. 'ESC warns monitors not to talk', Independent, 15 Feb. 2002. 98. 'Army deployed to supervise poll process', Independent, 8 Feb. 2002. 99. Statement by the SADC. Parliamentary Forum Election Observation Mission Zimbabwe Presidential Elections, 9–10 March 2002. 100. Statement by the SADC. 101. OAU Observer Mission (Harare), 'OAU Endorses "Free and Fair" Zimbabwe Presidential Poll', Press Release, 13 March 2002. 102. Interim Statement by the SA Observer Mission on the Zimbabwean Presidential Elections of 9 and 10 March 2002. 103. Congress of South African Trade Unions (Johannesburg), 'COSATU Statement on the Presidential Election', Press Release, 21 March 2002. 104. For two trenchant critiques see Gisela Geisler, 'Fair? What has Fairness got to do with it? Vagaries of Election Observing and Democratic Standards', Journal of Modern African Studies, 31/4 (1993), 613–37; and Thomas Carothers, 'The Observers Observed', Journal of Democracy, 8/3 (1997), 31. 105. Rijk van Dijk, 'Secret Worlds, Democratization and Election Observation in Malawi', in Jon Abbink and Gerti Hesseling (eds.), Election Observation and Democratization in Africa (London: Macmillan, 2000). 106. On Kenya and Ghana see Geisler, 'Fair?'; on Uganda see Laurie Cooper and Daniel Stroux, 'International Election Observation in Uganda: Compromise at the Expense of Substance', Afrika Spectrum, 31/2 (1996), 201–9; for a more controversial analysis of the South African elections of 1994 see Ineke van Kessel, 'Stability or Democracy: On the Role of Monitors, Media and Miracles', in Jon Abbink and Gerti Hesseling (eds.), Election Observation and Democratization in Africa (London: Macmillan, 2000). 107. Geisler, 'Fair?', 630. 108. van Kessel, 'Stability or Democracy'. 109. Jan Kees van Donge, 'Reflections on Donors, Opposition and Popular Will in the 1996 Zambian General Elections', Journal of Modern African Studies, 36/1 (1998), 71–99. 110. Neil Nevitte and Santiago A. Canton, 'The Role of Domestic Observers', Journal of Democracy, 8/3 (1997), pp. 47–61; see also Geisler, 'Fair?', 634–5. 111. 'New demands will disenfranchise thousands, analysts', IRIN, 27 Jan. 2005; 'Call for independent review of voters' roll', IRIN, 17 Jan. 2005. 112. 'Political violence could keep voters away, say rights groups', IRIN, 22 Feb. 2005. 113. 'COSATU delegation deported again', IRIN, 2 Feb. 2005. 114. 'Concern over election observers delay', IRIN, 14 Feb. 2005. 115. See, for instance, 'Keep unity alive, says president', Herald, 8 Feb. 2005; 'Mugabe Asks for election whitewash', Sunday Times (Johannesburg), 20 Feb. 2005. 116. See for instance the 10th report of the Select Committee on Foreign Affairs; and the debates in the House of Commons on 18 July 2000 and in the House of Lords on 3 July 2000, 12 Dec. 2001, 14 May 2002. 117. See, for instance, the debates on the elections in the Senate on 25 May 2000 and 30 June 2000 as well as in the House on 19 May 2000, and the debates on the Zimbabwe Democracy Act of 2000, and the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001. 118. See, for example, the debates on 17 May 2000, 6 Sept. 2001, 13 Dec. 2001, 16 May 2002 and 4 July 2002. 119. EU, 'Council Common Position of 18 February 2002 concerning restrictive measures against Zimbabwe'; see also BBC, 'EU agrees Zimbabwe sanctions', 18 Feb. 2002; IRIN, 'Chronology of EU sanctions', 20 Feb. 2002. 120. Previous suspensions (e.g. Pakistan) took place only in reaction to military coups. See, for example, Jack Straw's statement to the House of Commons on 21 March 2002 and Don McKinnon, 'Commonwealth statement on Zimbabwe', Press Release Commonwealth Secretariat, 16 March 2003. 121. Jonathan Steele, 'Zimbabwe moves us mainly because whites are suffering', Guardian (UK), 18 Jan. 2002. 122. David Steel, 'Why do we let the tyrants win time after time?', The Scotsman (UK), 23 March 2002, 11; see also the debate in the House of Lords, 22 April 2002. 123. For more discussion see: Greg Cameron, 'Zanzibar's Turbulent Transition', Review of African Political Economy, 92 (2002), 313–30; Nathalie Arnold, Bruce McKim and Ben Rawlence, 'The Bullets Were Raining: The January 2001 Attack on Peaceful Demonstrators in Zanzibar' (London: Human Rights Watch, 2002); Rotimi Sankore, 'Zanzibar Democracy On Shaky Foundations' (London, Article 19: 2000). 124. Debate in the House of Lords, 2 April 1996. 125. Peter Burnell, 'The Tripartite Elections in Zambia, December 2001', Electoral Studies, 22/2 (2003), 388–95. 126. Debate in the UK House of Lords, 22 April 2002. 127. Senator Feingold, 'The Recent Elections in Zambia', US Congressional Record (Senate), 24 Jan. 2002. 128. Eric Bjornlund, Michael Bratton and Clark Gibson, 'Observing Multi-party Elections in Africa: Lessons from Zambia', African Affairs 91/364 (1992), 407. 129. See, for instance, Ian Taylor, 'Commentary: The New Partnership for Africa's Development and the Zimbabwe Elections', African Affairs, 101/404 (2002), 403–12. 130. Nicholas Shaxson, 'Equatorial Guinea: oil interests blamed for decision to stop monitoring; UN accused over human rights', Financial Times (UK), 20/21 April 2002.