Modalities of Representation: Symbol and Narrative in 16th-Century Murals at the Convent of Izamal, Yucatán
2013; Routledge; Volume: 22; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/10609164.2013.769333
ISSN1466-1802
Autores Tópico(s)Mexican Socioeconomic and Environmental Dynamics
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgments I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer and the editors of this volume for their thoughtful suggestions regarding the content of this article; many thanks as well to Amara Solari for her insights about the larger function of Izamal and comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Notes 1. Franciscans were the only monastic order to operate in Yucatán in the early colonial period, arriving from central Mexico and Guatemala in 1544. They established churches in Campeche and Mérida in 1545, followed by Conkal, Izamal and Maní in 1549, and Valladolid in 1553. Staffing was a continual challenge, with most of the convents housing only one or two friars. On sixteenth-century church activity, see Ciudad Real 1873, Scholes and Adams 1938, Scholes et al. 1936, Roys 1952 Roys , Ralph L. 1952 . Conquest sites and the subsequent destruction of Maya architecture in the interior of northern Yucatan . 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[Google Scholar] and 2002 Chuchiak , John F. , IV . 2002 . Toward a regional definition of idolatry: Reexamining idolatry trials in the ‘Relaciones de Méritos’ and their role in defining the concept of ‘idolatria’ in colonial Yucatán, 1570–1580 . Journal of Early and Medieval History 6 ( 2 ): 140 – 67 . [Google Scholar]. On European expeditions in Yucatán see Chamberlain 1966 Chamberlain , Robert S. 1966 . The conquest and colonization of Yucatan, 1517–1550 . New York : Octagon . [Google Scholar] and Restall 1998 Restall , Matthew. 1998 . Maya conquistador . Boston : Beacon Press . [Google Scholar]. 2. Tozzer 1941 Tozzer , Alfred M. 1941 . Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatan . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University , 18 . Cambridge , MA : Harvard University . [Google Scholar], 172–74; also Lizana 1988 Lizana , Bernardo de. 1988 . Historia de Yucatán [1633] , Félix Jiménez Villalba . Madrid : Hermanos García Noblejas . [Google Scholar], chapter IV. On Izamal in 1581, see Juan de la Cueva Santillán's Relación de Izamal y Santa María in Scholes et al. 1936, 1:265–69. 3. Landa brought two twin sculptures from Guatemala to Yucatán in 1558 while moving between these two administrative centers from the mid-1550s to 1565. Lizana 1988 Lizana , Bernardo de. 1988 . Historia de Yucatán [1633] , Félix Jiménez Villalba . Madrid : Hermanos García Noblejas . [Google Scholar], chapter XIII, 79–82. The original statue was lost in a fire of 1829 that destroyed the camarín behind the apse of the church where the statue was kept when not on view in the church. The statue was replaced by the second, matching statue which was brought from Mérida. 4. On the convent's construction see Fernández 1945 Fernández , Justino , et al. 1945 . Catálogo de construcciones religiosas del Estado de Yucatán . 2 vols. Mexico City : Talleres Gráficos de la Nación . [Google Scholar], Bretos 1987 Bretos , Miguel. 1987 . Arquitectura y arte sacro en Yucatán . Mérida : Dante . [Google Scholar] and 1992 Bretos , Miguel. 1992 . Iglesias de Yucatán . Mérida : Dante . [Google Scholar], Wagner 1997 Wagner , Logan. 1997 . Open space as a tool of conversion: The syncretism of sacred courts and plazas in post-conquest Mexico . PhD. dissertation, University of Texas–Austin . [Google Scholar], and Millet Cámara and Burgos Villanueva 1993. 5. Date of the murals per communication with INAH archaeologist Rafael Burgos Villanueva in June 2008. In 1992, Luis Millet Cámaro led a team of Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia archaeologists that discovered the passageway murals beneath layers of cal (limestone whitewash). Burgos Villanueva became director of the project in 2001. Perry and Perry describe the murals (2002 Perry , Richard D. , and Rosalind Perry . 2002 . Maya missions: Exploring colonial Yucatan . Santa Barbara , CA : Espadaña Press . [Google Scholar], 206); see Restall and Solari (2011 Restall , Matthew , and Amara Solari . 2011 . 2012 and the end of the world: The western roots of the Maya apocalypse . Lanham , MD : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers . [Google Scholar], 95–97), and Solari (2013 Solari , Amara. 2013 . Maya ideologies of the sacred: The transfiguration of space in colonial Yucatan . Austin : University of Texas Press . [Google Scholar]) for a discussion of the murals’ ritual function within the larger monastic complex. 6. Wall designations used in this article refer to the relationship of the images on each wall to the image of the Virgin over the doorway on the east wall. Figures on the north/procession wall generally move toward the Virgin and are connected to the friars on the east wall. Figures on the south/rejection wall are self-contained and their actions suggest a rejection of the Virgin and Christianity. 7. Though hundreds of colonial churches mark the Yucatán Peninsula, few retain their original painted and sculpted artwork. For the most detailed accounts of art and architecture in colonial Yucatán see Bretos 1987 Bretos , Miguel. 1987 . Arquitectura y arte sacro en Yucatán . Mérida : Dante . [Google Scholar] and 1992 Bretos , Miguel. 1992 . Iglesias de Yucatán . Mérida : Dante . [Google Scholar]. 8. See Gombrich 1976 Gombrich , Ernst H. 1976 . Means and ends: Reflections on the history of fresco painting . London : Thames and Hudson . [Google Scholar]. 9. See Phelan (1956 Phelan , John Leddy. 1956 . The millenial kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World . Berkeley : University of California Press . [Google Scholar]) for an examination of the preconceptions in the New World evangelistic project of the Franciscans. 10. Early religious and civil accounts of Yucatán include: Diego de Landa's Relación de las cosas de Yucatán, (compiled, 1566), France Scholes and Eleanor Adams (1938 Scholes , France V. , and Eleanor B. Adams . 1938 . Don Diego Quijada alcalde mayor de Yucatán 1561–1565 . 2 vols. Mexico City : Antigua librería Robredo, de J. Porrúa . [Google Scholar]): Don Diego Quijada, Alcalde Mayor de Yucatán, 1561–1565, three volumes of Relaciones de Yucatán edited by Scholes and others (1936–1938 Scholes , France V. , Carlos R. Menéndez , J. Ignacio Rubio Mañe , and Eleanor B. Adams 1936–1938 . Documentos para la historia de Yucatán . 3 vols. 1: Primera Serie 1550–1561; 1936, Scholes and Menéndez; 2: La Iglesia en Yucatan, 1560–1610; 1938, Scholes and Adams; 3: Discurso sobre la Constitucin de las provincias de Yucatán y Campeche, 1766; 1938, Scholes and Martínez . Mérida , , Mexico : Compañía Tipográfica Yucateca . [Google Scholar]), Fray Antonio de Ciudad Real recorded Alonso Ponce's church visits (1873 Ciudad Real , Antonio de. 1873 . Relación breve y verdadera de algunas cosas de las muchas que sucedieron al padre fray Alonso Ponce en las provincias de la Nueva España [1588–1589] . 2 vols. Madrid : Viuda de Calero . [Google Scholar] [1588–89]), Bernardo de Lizana, Devocionario de nuestra Señora de Izamal y la conquista espiritual de Yucatán (1623–1624) and Historia de Yucatán (Valladolid, Spain, 1633), Francisco de Cárdenas Valencia (1937 Cárdenas Valencia , Francisco de. 1937 . Relación historial eclesiástica de la provincia de Yucatán de la Nueva España, escrita el año de 1639 [1639] . Mexico City : Antigua Librería Robredo, J. Porrúa e Hijos . [Google Scholar] [1639]), Relación Historial Eclesiástica de la Provincia de Yucatán de la Nueva España, escrita el año de 1639. Fray Diego López de Cogolludo's Historia de Yucatán (1867–1868 López de Cogolludo , Diego. 1867–1868 . Historia de Yucatán [1688] . 2 vols. Mérida : Manuel Aldana Rivas ; Madrid: J. García Infanzón . [Google Scholar] [1656]), draws upon these sources and others that were subsequently lost. 11. ‘Pero sean testigos de sus maravillas tantos instrumentos como en señal y muestra de ellos están colgados en su templo, cuerpos enteros de cera, brazos, piernas, cabezas, muletas, cables, velas y otras cosas diversas que con voces mudas publican los beneficios de esta princesa soberana, los cuales pregonan también con aclamaciones generales los de esta provincia, como testigos que han sido de los favores que en trances más desahuciados se han recibido de las manos e intersección de esta gran señora, donde el ciego ha hallado vista, el mudo habla, el tullido soltura, el enfermo salud y aun los muertos han conseguido vida’ (Cárdenas Valencia 1937 Cárdenas Valencia , Francisco de. 1937 . Relación historial eclesiástica de la provincia de Yucatán de la Nueva España, escrita el año de 1639 [1639] . Mexico City : Antigua Librería Robredo, J. Porrúa e Hijos . [Google Scholar], 105). 12. Carrillo y Ancona (1949 Carrillo y Ancona , Crescencio. 1949 . La civilización yucateca: El culto de la Virgen María en Yucatán [1878] . Mérida : Díaz Massa . [Google Scholar], 21) cites both Lizana and López de Cogolludo on these two points. Lizana's work deals with the forgotten/lost miracles: ‘y encomendándose á ella los fieles, innumerable Milagros, de que se pudiera escribir un gran volumen, si se hubíera tenido el cuidado que era justo. Los más se han olvidado con el tiempo, y aun los que se apuntaron, no se escribió aquel en que sucedieron, ni muchas circunstancias que los calificaran.’ López de Cogolludo, writing some twenty years later, notes the painted miracles at Izamal: ‘y muchos de ellos están pintados en el templo de esta Santa Imagen.’ 13. Scholes and Adams 1938 Scholes , France V. , and Eleanor B. Adams . 1938 . Don Diego Quijada alcalde mayor de Yucatán 1561–1565 . 2 vols. Mexico City : Antigua librería Robredo, de J. Porrúa . [Google Scholar], Scholes and Roys 1938 Scholes , France V. , Ralph Roys . 1938 . Fray Diego de Landa and the problem of idolatry in Yucatan . Carnegie Institution of Washington, publication 501 , 585 – 620 Washington , DC : Carnegie Institution . [Google Scholar], Clendinnen 1987 Clendinnen , Inga. 1987 . Ambivalent conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan 1517–1570 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . [Google Scholar], and Chuchiak 2001 Chuchiak , John F. , IV 2001 . Pre-conquest Ah Kinob in a colonial world: The extirpation of idolatry and the survival of the Maya priesthood in colonial Yucatán, 1563–1697 . In Maya survivalism , Acta Mesoamericana 12 , Ueli Hostettler and Matthew Restall , 135 – 57 . Markt Schwaben : A. Saurwein . [Google Scholar] and 2002 Chuchiak , John F. , IV . 2002 . Toward a regional definition of idolatry: Reexamining idolatry trials in the ‘Relaciones de Méritos’ and their role in defining the concept of ‘idolatria’ in colonial Yucatán, 1570–1580 . Journal of Early and Medieval History 6 ( 2 ): 140 – 67 . [Google Scholar]. 14. Scholes and Roys (1938 Scholes , France V. , Ralph Roys . 1938 . Fray Diego de Landa and the problem of idolatry in Yucatan . Carnegie Institution of Washington, publication 501 , 585 – 620 Washington , DC : Carnegie Institution . [Google Scholar], 586) established that the indigenous population of sixteenth-century Yucatán was around 300,000 in two hundred pueblos and scattered settlements, served by less than a dozen friars. 15. According to the Museo de Arte Sacro in Conkal, Yucatán, the Franciscan habit in colonial Yucatán included gowns of blue in addition to the traditional gray or brown. Because of the deterioration of the murals, it is difficult to ascertain the original hue of habit worn by the friars on the north and east walls. The remaining underpaint is gray, cooler than the red or golden tones used for skin or tree trunks, but could originally have been light brown, gray, or blue. 16. No tunics or long-sleeve garments appear in pre-Columbian and sixteenth-century sources for the lowland Maya. Their long-sleeve, European dress would do little to accommodate the humidity and heat of Yucatán. See Anawalt 1981 Anawalt , Patricia Rieff. 1981 . Indian clothing before Cortés: Mesoamerican costumes from the codices . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . [Google Scholar], chapter 7. 17. Weiditz's Trachtenbuch, 1994 Weiditz , Christoph. 1994 . Authentic everyday dress of the Renaissance, all 154 plates from the “Trachtenbuch.” New York : Dover . [Google Scholar], pl. XXXII, LX, and LXI. Also Oudijk 2000 Oudijk , Michel. 2000 . Historiography of the Bènizàa: The postclassic and early colonial periods (1000–1600 A.D.) . Leiden : Universiteit Leiden . [Google Scholar]. 18. See Edgerton (2001 Edgerton , Samuel Y. 2001 . Theaters of conversion: Religious architecture and Indian artisans in colonial Mexico . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press . [Google Scholar], 196) on artists and their training in central Mexico. 19. See Lizana 1988 Lizana , Bernardo de. 1988 . Historia de Yucatán [1633] , Félix Jiménez Villalba . Madrid : Hermanos García Noblejas . [Google Scholar], 238. Francisco de Cárdenas Valencia (1937 Cárdenas Valencia , Francisco de. 1937 . Relación historial eclesiástica de la provincia de Yucatán de la Nueva España, escrita el año de 1639 [1639] . Mexico City : Antigua Librería Robredo, J. Porrúa e Hijos . [Google Scholar], 106) briefly mentions arts, though in this case probably of language rather than plastic, noting that, ‘se han leído en dos veces dos cursos de artes y teología por los maestros Fray Fernando de Natera y fray Gregorio Maldonado.’ 20. ‘… amaba a los indios con extremo, y los enseñaba a pintores, doradores, entalladores, y a todos los oficios, y aunque el bendito religioso no lo sabía era tan ingenioso, que él trabajaba por saberlos, y poderlos enseñar los indios: y fue causa esto de que haya muchísimos de ellos que ya son pintores, y doradores, y entalladores, y cosas tales, si bien se han perfeccionado con maestros españoles que hoy hay in esta tierra, que iguala su destreza a la de los mejores del mundo, más el haberlos industriado este buen religioso, fue causa que se inclinasen a tales obras, que han llenado las Iglesias de retablos de talla extremados, y de buenas pinturas, y otros adornos’ (Lizana 1988 Lizana , Bernardo de. 1988 . Historia de Yucatán [1633] , Félix Jiménez Villalba . Madrid : Hermanos García Noblejas . [Google Scholar], 238). 21. Images discussed by Victoria Lyall in ‘Between Two Worlds: Negotiating Identity in the Maya Hinterlands,’ presented at the College Art Association conference, 10 February 2011, New York City. 22. Solari (2013 Solari , Amara. 2013 . Maya ideologies of the sacred: The transfiguration of space in colonial Yucatan . Austin : University of Texas Press . [Google Scholar]) notes the probability that the Maya of Itzmal were familiar with the murals at Tulum, a well-known and continuously used pilgrimage site on the east coast of the peninsula. 23. See Stratton (1983 Stratton , Suzanne L. 1983 . The Immaculate Conception in Spanish Renaissance and Baroque art . PhD. dissertation, New York University . [Google Scholar]) for the connection between the woman of the Apocalypse and the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception. 24. An anonymous eighteenth-century painting of the Virgin of Izamal (Museo Juan Gamboa Guzmán, Mérida) shows a static figure encased in a jeweled triangular cape, her hands pressed together at the center of her chest. 25. For the history of this connection in Spain and New Spain, see Stoichita 1994 Stoichita , Victor I. 1994 . Image and apparition: Spanish painting of the Golden Age and New World popular devotion . Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 26 : 34 – 46 . [Google Scholar]. 26. In his description of the Maya revolt of 1546, Chamberlain (1966 Chamberlain , Robert S. 1966 . The conquest and colonization of Yucatan, 1517–1550 . New York : Octagon . [Google Scholar], 243–44) reports that the Spaniards met fierce resistance just past Izamal three years before the establishment of a convent at the site. 27. ‘Porque el demonio fuese desterrado con la divina presencia de Cristo Sacramentado, asignó, que se edificase el Convento y iglesia en el mismo lugar, que los sacerdotes de ídolos vivían, y que el que lo había sido de abominación y idolatría, lo fuese de santificación, donde los ministros del verdadero Dios ofreciesen los divinos sacrificios y adoración á su Divina Majestad debida … .’ On one of the nearby pyramid structures, where ‘… estaba el ídolo Kabul, fundó un pueblo llamado Santa María, con que procuró borrar las memorias de tanta idolatría’ (López de Cogolludo 1867 López de Cogolludo , Diego. 1867–1868 . Historia de Yucatán [1688] . 2 vols. Mérida : Manuel Aldana Rivas ; Madrid: J. García Infanzón . [Google Scholar], Book 6). Also cited in Carrillo y Ancona 1949 Carrillo y Ancona , Crescencio. 1949 . 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[Google Scholar]) for a history of confraternal procession imagery at the convent of Huejotzingo. 36. The first confraternity in Yucatán, dedicated to Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación, was founded in Mérida on 18 November 1542 (Carrillo y Ancona 1949 Carrillo y Ancona , Crescencio. 1949 . La civilización yucateca: El culto de la Virgen María en Yucatán [1878] . Mérida : Díaz Massa . [Google Scholar] cites López de Cogolludo 1867 López de Cogolludo , Diego. 1867–1868 . Historia de Yucatán [1688] . 2 vols. Mérida : Manuel Aldana Rivas ; Madrid: J. García Infanzón . [Google Scholar], 1:225). Also Cárdenas Valencia 1937 Cárdenas Valencia , Francisco de. 1937 . Relación historial eclesiástica de la provincia de Yucatán de la Nueva España, escrita el año de 1639 [1639] . Mexico City : Antigua Librería Robredo, J. Porrúa e Hijos . [Google Scholar], 54 and 85–86, and Carrillo y Ancona 1949 Carrillo y Ancona , Crescencio. 1949 . La civilización yucateca: El culto de la Virgen María en Yucatán [1878] . Mérida : Díaz Massa . [Google Scholar], 41. The Archivo Historico de la Arquidiócesis de Yucatán holds records of a confraternity in Izamal from 1660, though because of the destruction of many documents, that date does not preclude an earlier organization. 37. On Tizimin see Roys 1952 Roys , Ralph L. 1952 . Conquest sites and the subsequent destruction of Maya architecture in the interior of northern Yucatan . Washington , DC : Carnegie Institution . [Google Scholar], 154, and Ciudad Real 1873 Ciudad Real , Antonio de. 1873 . Relación breve y verdadera de algunas cosas de las muchas que sucedieron al padre fray Alonso Ponce en las provincias de la Nueva España [1588–1589] . 2 vols. Madrid : Viuda de Calero . [Google Scholar], 2:398. Oranges were described as growing in numerous other convent patios and orchards, for example at Calkini (Ciudad Real 1873 Ciudad Real , Antonio de. 1873 . 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[Google Scholar], 414). 39. ‘Y si alguno se convierte, es con mucho trabajo y perseverancia de los ministros, y con todo esto, no han sido pocos los que nuestros frailes han traído y reducido a hacer vida política en poblaciones, donde los han juntado y doctrinado y hecho cristianos, aunque este fruto ha costado las vidas de los que aquí se nombrarán, y de algunos otros que no habrán venido a mi noticia’ (Mendieta 1971, 228 and 237). 40. ‘En este pueblo de Tula, cuando comenzaron a bautizer los indios, un ministro de los del tiempo de su infieldad, que ellos llamaban Placiuhqui, pocos días después de bautizado, iba a su heredad y los demonios les salieron al camino y le dieron tantos de golpes, que lo dejaron molido, medio muerto. Decianle; “Por qué nos dejaste, traidor? Pues si no vas a comprar algo para nos ofrecer, sábete que te hemos de matar”’ (Mendieta 1973 Mendieta , Gerónimo de. 1973 . Historia eclesiástica indiana . Francisco Solano Pérez-Lila Madrid : Atlas . [Google Scholar], 281). 41. This is particularly seen in the Maya revolt of 1546–1547. Different patrilineal groups of Maya coordinated an attack on the Spanish encomenderos and their families on the night of 8–9 November 1546. See Chamberlain 1966 Chamberlain , Robert S. 1966 . The conquest and colonization of Yucatan, 1517–1550 . New York : Octagon . [Google Scholar] , chapter 7, 237–52. 42. Amara Solari (personal communication, July 2011) suggests that the tenuous religious circumstances in Yucatán during these decades likely diminished the possibility of graphically representing this type of violent behavior toward the friars. 43. Cañizares-Esguerra (2006 Cañizares-Esguerra , Jorge. 2006 . Puritan conquistadors: Iberianizing the Atlantic, 1550–1700 . Stanford : Stanford University Press .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) explores these themes particularly in chapter 4, ‘Demonology and Nature,’ and chapter 5, ‘Spiritual Gardening.’ 44. See Peterson (1993 Peterson , Jeanette Favrot. 1993 . The Paradise Garden murals of Malinalco: Utopia and empire in sixteenth-century Mexico . Austin : University of Texas Press . [Google Scholar]) on floral motifs in early Mexican convent painting. 45. ‘abomine de las cosas del demonio y exhorte a todos a que no crean en los ídolos ni esperen en sus promesas, sino conózcanlos por piedras, palos y barro en los cuales están los demonios para engañar a los hombres’ (Scholes et al. 1938 Scholes , France V. , and Eleanor B. Adams . 1938 . Don Diego Quijada alcalde mayor de Yucatán 1561–1565 . 2 vols. Mexico City : Antigua librería Robredo, de J. Porrúa . [Google Scholar], 2:30). 46. ‘en especial si después de su bautismo tornó a idolatrar invocando al demonio, quemándole copal u ofreciendo alguna cosa, quese acuerde bien de todo y le pese grandemente de ello’ (Scholes et al. 1938 Scholes , France V. , Ralph Roys . 1938 . Fray Diego de Landa and the problem of idolatry in Yucatan . 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