Balancing Acts: The Gulf States and Israel
2004; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 40; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/0026320042000240401
ISSN1743-7881
Autores Tópico(s)Middle East and Rwanda Conflicts
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgments This article is based on material from the author's master's thesis, 'Foreign Relations of Weak States: The Gulf States and Israel (1991–97)', (in Hebrew) Bar Ilan University, 2001. She wishes to thank the thesis adviser, Professor Efraim Inbar, for his help and guidance, and is also grateful to Professor Gerald Steinberg for his comments on this article. Notes David Vital, The Inequality of States: A Study of the Small Power in International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967); David Vital, Midinot Ktanot be-Mivchan ha-Kiyum (in Hebrew) (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1972), p.174. Michael Handel, Weak States in the International System (London: Frank Cass, 1981), pp.52–3. Robert L. Rothstein, Alliances and Small Powers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p.29. The most important of these being the size and/or quality of its population, geographic conditions, military potential and economic ability. As Rothstein correctly notes, it is no longer possible to presume a state is weak solely on the basis of its military power, since states have many interests that do not depend directly on soldiers and weapons. Rothstein, Alliances, pp.14–18. Handel, Weak States, p.36. Vital, Inequality, p.93. As do all states, according to the Realist paradigm. See: Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1979), p.106. Raimo Väyrynen, 'Small States: Persisting Despite Doubts', in Efraim Inbar and Gabriel Sheffer (eds.), The National Security of Small States in a Changing World (London: Frank Cass, 1997), p.46. Stephen M. Walt, 'Alliances: Balancing and Bandwagoning', in Robert J. Art and Robert Jervis (eds.), International Politics: Enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues (New York: Longman, 1992), p.70. Ibid, p.71. Steven R. David, 'Explaining Third World Alignment', World Politics, Vol.43, Jan.(1991), pp.234–5. David, ibid., p.236. Anthony H. Cordesman, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar and the UAE: Challenges of Security (Boulder, CO: Westview Press,1997), p.4. This is due to large oil reserves, but also, in Qatar's case, thanks to its immense natural gas reserve, the North Dome. Cordesman, Bahrain, pp.8–9. Due to Palestinian support for Iraq, after liberation, tens of thousands of Palestinians were deported to Jordan. See: Amy Henderson, 'Cast Out', The Jerusalem Report, 17 April 1997, pp.24–5. Rosemarie Said Zahlan, The Making of the Modern Gulf States: Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Oman (London: Ithaca Press, 1998), p.86. Cordesman, Bahrain, pp.12–13. Marc J. O'Reilly, 'Omanibalancing: Oman Confronts an Uncertain Future', Middle East Journal, Vol.52, No.1, Winter (1998), p.83. Sean Foley, 'The UAE: Political Issues and Security Dilemmas', Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA), Vol.3, No.1, March (1999), < http://meria.idc.ac.il > . Daniel L. Byman and Jerrold D. Green, 'The Enigma of Stability in the Persian Gulf Monarchies', MERIA, Vol.3, No.3, Sept. (1999), < http://meria.idc.ac.il > . Joseph Kostiner, 'Kuwait', Middle East Contemporary Survey (MECS) Vol.16, (1992), p.575. Byman and Green, 'Enigma'. For a history of the GCC see: Emile A. Nakhleh, The Gulf Cooperation Council: Policies, Problems and Prospects (New York: Greenwood, 1986). Joseph Wright Twinam, 'Reflections on Gulf Cooperation, with Focus on Bahrain, Qatar and Oman', in John A. Sandwick (ed.), The Gulf Cooperation Council: Moderation and Stability in an Independent World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987), p.22. Qatar accused Saudi Arabia of appointing the GCC chairman contrary to GCC procedure. See Cordesman, Bahrain, pp.220–1. Ibid., pp.31,39. Foley, 'The UAE'. Barry Rubin, 'The Persian Gulf After the Cold War: Old Patterns, New Era', Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA), Vol.3, No.2, June (1999), < http://meria.idc.ac.il > . Mordechai Gazit, 'Regional Affairs', MECS, Vol.16 (1992), pp.232–3. For a description of the Iraq–Kuwait dispute and its origins see: Maurice Mendelson and Susan Hulton, 'Iraq's Claim to Sovereignty over Kuwait', in Richard N. Schonfeld (ed.), Territorial Foundations of the Gulf States (London: UCL Press, 1994), pp.117–42. Joseph Kostiner, 'Kuwait', MECS, Vol.15, (1991), pp.533–4. Cordesman, Bahrain, pp.226–7. Byman and Green, 'Enigma'. Foley, 'The UAE'. For a detailed review of the issue, see Cordesman, Bahrain, pp.300–03. Foley, 'The UAE'. Marc J. O'Reilly, 'Omanibalancing'. See for example: 'Iraq's Breakup Would Spark Civil War, Says Saud', Arab News, 25 Jan., 2004. 'Iraq Shock for Kuwait', Gulf Daily News, 22 Feb. 2004. Joseph A. Kechichian, 'Comment: The Predicament of GCC States', Gulf News, 15 Jan. 2004. Byman and Green, Enigma. For an elaboration on the process that brought about the declaration, also called 'six plus two' (six Gulf states plus Egypt and Syria), see Bruce Maddy-Weitzman and Joseph Kostiner, 'The Damascus Declaration: An Arab Attempt at Regional Security', in Efraim Inbar (ed.), Regional Security Regimes: Israel and its Neighbors (New York: , 1995), pp.107–25. Gazit, 'Regional Affairs', p.240. Feisal Al-Mazidi, The Future of the Gulf: The Legacy of the War and the Challenges of the 1990s (London: I.B. Tauris, 1993), p.11; Joseph A. Kechichian, 'Comment'. Rosemarie Said Zahlan, The Making of the Modern Gulf States, p.26. Joseph Kechichian, 'Oman and the World', American Arab Affairs, No.35 (1990–91), p.145. Cordesman, Bahrain, p.203. Cordesman, Bahrain, p.38; Zahlan, The Making of the Modern Gulf States, pp.73–4, 77. Foley, 'The UAE'. Ibid. Especially France. See: Cordesman, Bahrain, p.226. Interview with Ro'i Rosenblit, deputy head of the Israeli Trade Mission to Oman, March 2000; Patrick Clawson, 'Israel–Gulf Trade Ties', Middle East Insight, Vol.12, No.4 (1996), p.66. Jacob Abadi, 'Israel's Relations with Oman and the Persian Gulf States', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.20, No.1, Fall (1996), p.46. John D. Anthony, Arab States of the Lower Gulf: People, Politics and Petroleum (Washington DC: Middle East Institute, 1975), p.116. Joseph Kechichian, Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1995), p.268. Ibid., p.48; Abadi, 'Israel's Relations', pp.52, 56–7, 65, 68. Kechichian, Oman and the World, p.269. Abadi, 'Israel's Relations' pp.53, 65, 69. Oman hosted the water working group in April 1994 and Bahrain was the venue of the Oct. 1994 meeting of the environmental working group. During this meeting, the Bahrain Environmental Code of Conduct for the Middle East was formulated. See: MFA (Israel), The Bahrain Code of Conduct < http://www.israel.org:80/peace/Bahrain.html > (December, 1998). The ACRS working group met in Qatar in April 1994. In Sept. 1995 Israel agreed to participate in the funding of a water research centre in Oman (Joshua Teitelbaum, 'Oman', Middle East Contemporary Survey (MECS), Vol.20 (1995), p.521). During an informal meeting in Oman in June 1995, the participants agreed to establish a regional centre in Amman, Jordan dedicated to environmental issues (MFA (Israel)), Environmental Working Group < http://www.israel.org:80/peace/environ.html > (December 1998). Khaleej Times, 25 Sept. 1993. See for example: Oman Daily Observer, 14–16 Sept., 1993; Khaleej Times, 21 Sept., 1993. Ehud Ya'ari, 'The Gulf Connection', The Jerusalem Report, 24 Feb. 1994, pp.26–7. Times of Oman, 17 Nov. 1993. See also: MFA (Israel), The Fruits of Peace: Economic. < http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH00r0 > (March 1999). Neal Sandler and Hanan Sher, 'Behind Open Doors', The Jerusalem Report, 6 Oct. 1994, p.39. The most famous of these trade agreements in the making was the Israel–Qatar gas deal. Qatar admitted it was negotiating with Israel (through a third party) in 1994. See: Ehud Ya'ari, 'The Gulf Connection', The Jerusalem Report, 24 Feb. 1994, pp.26–7. At the onset of the current Palestinian intifada, Oman asked Israel to close its trade mission. Qatar announced that it would close the Israeli mission in Doha, but failed to make an official request. The trade mission continues to function and relations seem to exist as before, even if in a very low-key manner. In May–June 2003 Doha and Manama hinted they might be open to signing peace treaties even under the present circumstances. However, nothing concrete evolved during the following months. ('Crown Prince of Bahrain meets Israeli FM', Al Bawaba, 22 June 2003, < http://www.albawaba.com > ; 'Qatar Ready to Boost Ties with Israel if Mideast Peace Accelerates', Al-Jazeera, 16 May 2003. < http://www.aljazeera.info > . Richard H. Curtiss, 'Qatar's New Ruler Breaks the GCC Policy Mode', Washington Report (May–June 1996). Online edition: < http://209.196.134.72/back/1996/05/9605078.htm > (Dec. 1998). Joshua Teitelbaum, 'Oman,' Contemporary Survey (MECS), Vol.19 (1995), pp.562–3. Al-Ittihad, 20 May 1996, p.30. See: Globes, 27, 30 May 1996. Globes, 29 May 1996. Various articles were devoted to the parties, candidates, as well as the views of Israelis (Arabs and Jews alike). See for example: al-Ittihad, 28 May 1996, 'Uman, 6,11,13,20 May 1996. al-Ittihad, 30 May 1996. al-Ittihad, 31 May 1996. al-Ittihad, 31 May 1996. For a similar headline in an additional paper see: 'Uman, 3 June 1996. Globes, 20 June 1996; Globes, 23 July 1996. Globes, 2 July 1996. MFA (Israel), Speech by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on the Presentation of the Government to the Kenesset, 18 June 1996. < http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH01720 > . (July 2002). Globes, 23 July 1996. (Israel), < http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH001p0 > . (March 1999). Teitelbaum, 'Qatar,' MECS, Vol.20 (1996), p.576. Globes, 5 June 1996. Teitelbaum, 'Oman,' MECS, Vol.20 (1996), p.563. Gulf News, 3 Oct. 1996. Globes, 31 Dec. 1996. Gulf News, 6 Oct. 1996. Gulf News, 4 Oct. 1996. See also an interesting photo depicting an Israeli soldier speaking to and smiling at an elderly Palestinian after the lifting of a curfew in Hebron. The same issue, several pages later, showed a colour photo of young Israelis protesting against Netanyahu's policy. (Gulf News, 7 Oct. 1996.) Again, differentiating between the (warmongering) leadership and the public it misrepresents. Globes, 2 June 1996. Globes, 22 Nov. 1996. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Qatar), GCC Summit, Doha: HE The Foreign Minister's Press Conference, 9 Dec. 1996. < http://www.mofa.gov.qa/foreign/conferences/gcc96/news/dec9-e.htm > . (Dec. 1998) Gulf Daily News, 3 Oct. 1996. Teitelbaum, 'Qatar', MECS, Vol.19 (1995), p.527. Cordesman, Bahrain (1997), pp.48–9,220–1. Ibid, pp.223–5. Globes, 23 March 1997. Interestingly, during an official meeting with the Qatari foreign minister, the late Syrian president, Hafez al-Asad, mentioned pointedly that those who were 'ahead of their time' dealing with the peace process, also ended their days before their time (meaning Egyptian president Anwar Sa'adat and Israeli premier Yizchak Rabin). ('President Asad "covertly pushing Arab leaders to isolate Israel"', The Jerusalem Report (11 June 1996, p.6.) Although Syria did not officially threaten Qatar, it is clear that Qatari behaviour was not looked upon favourably in the Arab world and even seen as a threat. Curtiss, 'Qatar's New Ruler', Washington Report, May–June 1996: < http://209.196.134.72/back/1996/05/9605078.htm > (Dec. 1998). Teitelbaum, 'Qatar', MECS, Vol.20 (1996), p.575. Teitelbaum, 'Bahrain', MECS, Vol.19 (1995), pp.238, 244. Although found guilty and sentenced to three years in prison and a monetary fine, the two alleged spies were freed a few weeks later. Another bizarre incident occurred days later: a member of the Bahraini royal family, an air-force officer, defected to Qatar with his helicopter. The helicopter was returned to Bahrain in Jan. 1997 and Qatar declared the pilot was free to go where he chose. See: Teitelbaum, 'Bahrain', MECS, Vol.20 (1996), p.256. Ibid. p.256. One should note that due to the Qatari Emir's great popularity, neighbouring states tend to attribute objectionable policy to the foreign minister, rather than to the Emir himself. See: Curtiss, 'Qatar's New Ruler', Washington Report, May–June 1996. < http://209.196.134.72/back/1996/05/9605078.htm > (Dec. 1998). Globes, 16 Dec. 1996. Cordesman, Bahrain (1997), pp.81–6. Teitelbaum, 'Bahrain', MECS Vol, 20 (1996), p.254. Gulf News, 5 June 1997. For further coverage of the developments in Bahrain: see Teitelbaum, 'Bahrain', MECS Vol.19 (1995), pp.256–7. Teitelbaum, 'Bahrain', MECS, (1996), pp.256–7. The US Secretary of Defence came on an official visit and additional American military equipment was stationed in Bahrain. Teitelbaum, 'Bahrain', MECS (1996), pp.256–7. Teitelbaum, 'United Arab Emirates', MECS (1996), pp.718–21. Ibid, p.722. Criticism focused on the conduct of the government and the royal family before and during 1990–91. During its term of office, the NA was able to force the government to pass a number of reforms, especially in the judiciary system. In addition, the NA succeeded in embarrassing the government by publicizing problems in various ministries and criticizing numerous governmental actions. However, while attempting to function as a democratic tool, the NA also tried to pass laws conforming to Islamic Sharia', such as segregation of the sexes in the educational system. See: Joseph Kostiner, 'Kuwait', MECS Vol.20 (1996), pp.469–61. Ibid., p.461. In 1995 the foreign population grew by 8.9 per cent while the Kuwaiti population grew by only 3.7 per cent. This was also the case for all the weak Gulf states. See report in Globes, 16 Dec. 1996. Kostiner, 'Kuwait', MECS (1996), pp.468–9. Ibid, pp.468–9. Ibid. pp.457–69. Ibid, pp.468–9. Teitelbaum, 'Oman', MECS (1996), p.562. 'Uman, 25 May 1996.
Referência(s)