The Genesis, History, and Functioning of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): A Formal-Institutional Analysis
2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 31; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13602004.2011.630864
ISSN1469-9591
Autores Tópico(s)Islamic Finance and Banking Studies
ResumoAbstract This article aims to analyze the functioning and efficacy of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC) by applying a formal-institutional method. This approach attends to the inner mechanism of an organization, in preference to the “milieu” method, that examines an organization with reference to its members' capacities and other conditions. Thus, analytical focus is on the formal edifices of an organization: its charters, voting procedures, and committee structures. This article embeds the formal/institutional method with the thesis that the absence from the OIC's structure of (i) an informed and costly membership requirement and (ii) a rule-enforcing body, accounts for its current functionality problems. To substantiate this argument, the paper compares the OIC with some other international inter-governmental organizations such as the European Union and the United Nations. The conclusion follows that any reform plan should acknowledge that the extant membership rules are a structural problem and the absence of enforceable regulations are a functional problem for the OIC. The analysis also suggests that intra-OIC formations are necessary in order to stimulate the organization's performance and effectiveness. Notes Gilles Kepel, Jihad The Trail of Political Islam, London: I. B. Tauris, 2004, p. 74. Shahram Akbarzadeh and Kylie Connor, “The Organization of the Islamic Conference: Sharing an Illusion”, Middle East Policy, Vol. 12, No. 2, Summer 2005, p. 80. Masood Khan, “What is in name?”, available online at: www.arabnews.com (accessed 5 July 2011). Ali Ashraf Rabbani, “Why Iran Chose Turkey”, Turkish Daily News, 16 September 2004. Mehmet Kalyoncu, “A Quest for Reform across the Muslim World”, Today's Zaman, 24 January 2011. Mehmet Yılmaz, “Örgüte Vizyon Kazadıracak” [A New Vision to the Organization], Aksiyon, 21 June 2004. OIC Resolution, 4/38-LEG on Cooperation Agreement Between The OIC and the African Union, 30 June 2011. Final Communiqué of the 11th Session of the Islamic Summit Conference, OIC/Summit-11/2008/FC/REV.6, Dakar, 13–14 March 2008. OIC Resolution, 4/38-C on Family Issues Promoting Women's Status, Astana, 30 June 2011. Reuters, 15 July 2011, 15.49 EDT. Ten-Year Programme of Action, Article 11, available online at: http://www.oic-oci.org/ex-summit/english/10-years-plan.htm Friedrich Kratochwil and John Gerard Ruggie, “International Organization: A State of the Art on an Art of the State”, International Organization, Vol. 40, No. 4, Autumn 1986, p. 755. Ibid. The word ummah is not a clear one, as it refers to various different sets of meanings in the Qur'an. What Frederick M. Denny wrote in 1977 is still informative: “There is no simple formula for defining the term ummah in the Quran, because it covers a variety of realities. …So when we speak of the ummah concept in the Quran, we must distinguish which ummah concept we mean”. Frederick M. Denny, “Ummah in the Constitution of Medina”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 36, No. 1, January 1977, p. 39. See also Frederick M. Denny, “The Meaning of Ummah in the Quran”, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 1, August 1975, pp. 34–70. Kevin J. O'Toole, “Islam and the West: The Clash of Values”, Global Change, Peace & Security, Vol. 20, No. 1, February 2008, p. 35. Noor Ahmad Baba, “Organization of the Islamic Conference: Conceptual Framework and Institutional Structure”, International Studies, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1993, pp. 37–49. Michele Lombardini, “The International Islamic Court of Justice: Towards an International Islamic System?, Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2001, p. 667. Abdullah al Ahsan, OIC The Organization of the Islamic Conference (An Introduction to an Islamic Political Institution), Herndon, VA: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1998, p. 24. Meanwhile, it should be remembered that most Islamic—particularly Arab—states have severe problems with securing their full sovereignty. Several transnational or sub-national challenges are still putting at risk those states' capacities for sovereignty. Therefore the duality between nationhood and the power of transnational or sub-national identities is a natural feature of the domestic politics of Muslim societies. See Gokhan Bacik, Hybrid Sovereignty in the Arab Middle East: The Cases of Kuwait, Jordan and Iraq, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation? Identity Crisis in Contemporary Muslim Society, Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1992, p. 50. Kevin J. O'Toole, “Islam and the West: The Clash of Values”, op. cit., p. 35. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 37. Ibid., p. 27. On the structural link between citizenship and the nation-state, see Gershon Shafir, The Citizenship Debates: A Reader, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1998, p. 2. Also see Patrick Weil, “Access to Citizenship: A Comparison of Twenty-Five Nationality Laws”, in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. Thomas Alexander Aleinikoff, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001, p. 18. Michelle Lombardini, The International Islamic Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 672. Ibid., p. 110. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 47. Ibid., p. 11. The early Turkish reservations about the Mu'tamars should be remembered here. The Turks noticed correctly that the groups in those Mu'tamars were somehow linked with the idea of the Caliphate. Hasan Moinuddin, The Charter of the Islamic Conference and Legal Framework of Economic Co-operation among its Member States, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987, p. 70. Shahnaz Akhtar, The Role of the Organization of the Islamic Conference in Political and Economic Co-operation of the Muslim World (1974–1994), Unpublished PHD Thesis Submitted to Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, 2002, p. 62. Noor Ahmad Baba, “Organization of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 42. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 109. Jeff Haynes, “Transnational Religious Actors and International Politics”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2001, p. 152. Naveed S. Sheikh, The New Politics of Islam Pan-Islamic Foreign Policy in a World of States, London: Routledge, 2003, p. 36. “Organization of the Islamic Conference: OIC – 40th Anniversary” General Secretariat, Information Department, Jeddah Saudi Arabia, No Date, p. 15. Shahram Akbarzadeh and Kylie Connor, The Organization of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 80; Davut Dursun, İslam Dünyasında Dayanıs¸ma Hareketleri [The Solidarity Movements in the Islamic World], İstanbul: Agac, 1992, p. 84. John A. McKesson, “The Shuman Plan”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 67, No. 1, March 1952, pp. 18–35. Walter Yondorf, “Monnet and the Action Committee: The Formative Period of the European Community”, International Organization, Vol. 19, No. 4, Autumn 1965, pp. 885–912. For a detailed discussion of this point, see Craig Parsons, “Showing Ideas as Causes: The Origins of the European Union”, International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 1, Winter 202, pp. 47–84. Charlotte Bretherton and John Vogler, The European Union as a Global Actor, London: Routledge 2006, p. 3. Terrence Murray, “Europe Debates God's Place in New Constitution: A Divine Reference is Among the Most Contentious Issues as Delegates Reconvene this Month”, The Christian Science Monitor, 10 April 2003. See also Honor Mahony, “Does God Belong in the Future EU Constitution?”, The Parliament Magazine, 10 March 2003, p. 12. For example, The Statute of the Islamic States Telecommunication Union (ISTU) states that the first objective of the Union is “to promote Islamic solidarity in the telecommunication field”. Article 2, The Statute of the Islamic States Telecommunication Union (ISTU). Alexander B. Murphy, “The Sovereign State System as Political-Territorial Ideal: Historical and Contemporary Considerations”, in State Sovereignty as Social Construct, eds. Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 82. Also see Daniel Philpot, “Westphalia, Authority, and International Society”, Political Studies, Vol. 47, No. 3, Special Issue 1999, p. 567 and Friedrich Kratochwil, “Of Systems, Boundaries, and Territorially”, World Politics, Vol. 39, No. 1, October 1986, p. 27. Gershon Shafir, The Citizenship Debates, op. cit., p. 2. See also Patrick Weil, “Access to Citizenship: A Comparison of Twenty-Five Nationality Laws”, in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. Thomas Alexander Aleinikoff, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001, p. 18. Janice E. Thomson, “State Sovereignty in International Relations: Bridging the Gap between Theory and Empirical Research”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 2, June 1995, p. 227. See also David Newman, “Boundaries, Borders, and Barriers: Changing Geographic Perspectives on Territorial Lines”, in Identities Borders Orders Rethinking International Relations Theory, eds. Mathias Albert-David Jacobson and Yosef Lapid, Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2001, pp. 137–151. Shahram Akbarzadeh and Kylie Connor, The Organization of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., pp. 80 and 81. For instance, in matters such as the status of the Caspian Sea or energy routes, intra-member tensions are very common. See “Iran Says Ready to Negotiate with Azerbaijan on Caspian Debate”, People's Daily Online, 28 July 2001. Pascal Lamy, Director General of the World Trade Organization: “Members of civil society can send amicus curiae briefs to WTO adjudicating bodies (Panels and the Appellate Body) during dispute settlement procedures”. Available online at: http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=5742. Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Article XII(1). Scott Pegg, De Facto States in the International System, Institute of International Relations, The University of British Columbia, Working Paper No. 21, February 1998, p. 9. See footnote 17. Robert Keohane, “The Demand for International Regimes”, in International Regimes, ed. Stephen D. Krasner, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, p. 153. Robert Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 103. Barbara Koremenos, Charles Lipson, Duncan Snidal, “The Rational Design of International Institutions”, International Organization, Vol. 70, No. 4, Autumn 2001, p. 770. Ibid., p. 783. Ibid. Christer Jönsson, “Interorganisation Theory and International Organization”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 1, March 1986, p. 41. Barbara Koremenos et al., The Rational Design, op. cit., p. 783. Michael Wesley, Regional Organisations of the Asia Pacific: Exploring Institutional Change, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, p. 115. Tarık Oğuzlu, “Soft Power in Turkish Foreign Policy”, Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 61, No. 1, March 2007, pp. 82–84. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu, The Islamic World in the New Century, the Organization of Islamic Conference, 1969–2009, London: Hurst & Company, 2010, p. 37. Available online at: http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-1.html Available online at: http://www.oefre.unibe.ch/law/icl/sa00000_.html Melek Firat-Ömer Kürkçüoğlu, “Ortadoğu'yla İlis¸kiler” [Relations with the Middle East], in Türk Dıs¸ Politikası Kurtulus¸ Savas¸ından Bugüne Olgular, Belgeler, Yorumlarv” [“Turkish Foreign Policy, Documents, Cases and Comments”], ed. Baskın Oran, İstanbul: İletis¸im, 2003, 792. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., pp. 45–46. Salahudeen Yusuf, “Nigeria's Membership in the OIC: Implications of Print Media Coverage for Peace and National Unity”, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1999, p. 240. Also see Leo Dare, “Political Instability and Displacement in Nigeria”, Journal of Asian & African Studies, Vol. 32, Nos. 1/2, June 1997, p. 30. Kevin J. O'Toole, Islam and the West, op. cit., p. 30. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 111. Stefan Voigt, “Islam and the Institutions of a Free Society”, The Independent Review, Vol. 10, No. 1, Summer 2005, p. 64. Hassan Moinuddin, The Charter of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 10. Noor Ahmad Baba,Baba, Organization of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 39. Vladimir Kovalev, “Russia Wants to Join Islamic Organization”, Week in Review, 5–11 August 2003. A. LeRoy Bennett and James K. Oliver, International Organizations Principles and Issues, London: Prentice Hall, 2002, p. 72. “An Independent Kosovo Can Never Join UN: Russia”, Reuters, 17 January 2008. “Rift Among OIC Experts over Kosovo”, Tanjug News Agency, 11 March 2008. “Egypt blocks Kosovo delegation participation OIC”, Egypt News, 26 November 2008. (Available online at: http://news.egypt.com/en/200811264968/news/-egypt-news/egypt-blocks-kosovo-delegation-participation-oic.html) Malaysian Foreign Minister, also the chair of the OIC 2005 summit, described the loose character of the OIC as the real problem. Cited in Also see Mehmet Ozkan, “Turkey in the Islamic World: An Institutional Perspective”, Turkish Review of Middle East Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2007, p. 164. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 54. Kelly-Kate S. Pease, International Organizations Perspectives on Governance in the Twenty-First Century, New York: Prentice Hall, 2003, p. 21. Clive Archer, International Organizations, London: Routledge, 2001, p. 73. Ibid., p. 76. A. LeRoy Bennett and James K. Oliver, International Organization, op. cit., p. 72. Kelly-Kate S. Pease, International Organizations, op. cit., p. 23. Although not the equal in importance of the Security Council, the International Court of Justice in The Hague can be cited as another organ that displays the UN system as a relatively strong intra-institutional body. All members of the UN are automatically members of the ICJ. Yet ICJ judges are drawn from the different legal systems of the world. A. LeRoy Bennett and James K. Oliver, International Organizations, op. cit., p. 78. Haynes, Traditional Religious Actors, op. cit., p. 152. Ziyauddin Serdar, Islamic Futures, The Shape of Ideas to Come, London: Mansell, 1985, p. 51. Hassan Moinuddin, The Charter of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 74. Noor Ahmad Baba, Organization of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 41. Ibid., p. 38. Michelle Lombardini, The International Islamic Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 674. Shahnaz Akhtar, The Role of the Organization of the Islamic, op. cit., p. 97. Michelle Lombardini, The International Islamic Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 671. Michelle Lombardini, The International Islamic Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 680. Kelly-Kate S. Pease, International Organizations, op. cit., p. 31. Clive Archer, International Organizations, op. cit., p. 58. Here A. LeRoy Bennett and James K. Oliver's analysis on the UN is applied. Bennett and Oliver, International Organizations, op. cit., p. 59. Hasan Moinuddin, The Charter of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 85. Ibid. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 50. Ibid., p. 115. Ibid., p. 116. Hasan Moinuddin, The Charter of the Islamic Conference, op. cit., p. 101. Abdullah al Ahsan, Umma or Nation?, op. cit., p. 116. OIC Resolution, 1/38-POA on the Implementation of the Ten-Year Programme of Action, 30 June 2011. “OIC calls on Islamic countries to recognize Kosovo”, www.albeu.com, 28 July 2011. “Final Declaration on Libya”, www.rohama.org/en/pages/?cid4337, 9 March 2006. “OIC Sends Delegation to Mediate in Libya Crisis”, Daily Trust, 23 June 2011. “OIC rejects military action on Libya”, www.presstv.ir/detail/168830.html, 8 March 2011. Available online at: http://www.mfa.gov.tr/d-8/facts.figures01.htm
Referência(s)