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Hatred of the System: Menacing Loners and Autonomous Cells in the Netherlands

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 26; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09546553.2014.849932

1556-1836

Jelle van Buuren, Beatrice de Graaf,

Innovative Approaches in Technology and Social Development

Abstract In this article, the violent threat emerging from “menacing loners” and autonomous cells in The Netherlands is being historicized and contextualized by providing quantitative and qualitative insight into this threat and illuminating some of the most dramatic incidents. Although beyond the core purpose of this mainly empirical article, some tentative remarks will be presented as possible explanation for both continuity and change. We argue that the shift from political violence originating from groups and networks to political violence perpetrated by individuals, and the shift from ideologically motivated violence to performative violence, are both shifts within a continuum, not radical breaks with the past. It is a difference in degree. Further, we argue that these gradual shifts in types of violence can only be understood as dependent on parallel manifestations of counter-policies, technological developments, and broader trends within society, rather than as attributable to indigenous terrorist developments as such. We postulate a shift from ideologically motivated to performative violence, resulting to a large extent from the possibilities offered by the Internet and social media, and from a broader cultural trend defined as the emergence of the “casting society.” Keywords: casting societydeath threatshatred of the systemmenacing lonersperformative violence Notes Note: Buijs, Overtuiging en Geweld. Vreedame en Gewelddadige Acties Tegen de Apartheid (see note 23 below), 173; BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1985, 4e Kwartaal 1985 (Den Haag: Author, 1985); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1987, 1e Kwartaal 1987 Nr. 2048.927 (Den Haag: Author, 1987); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1987, 4e Kwartaal 1987 Nr. 2070.330 (Den Haag: Author, 1987); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1988, 4e Hwartaal 1988 Nr. 2094.467 (Den Haag: Author, 1988); Klerks, Terreurbestrijding in Nederland, 1970–1988 (see note 9 below). Note: BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht 4e Kwartaal 1989, Nr. 2115986 (Den Haag: Author, 1989); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1989, 2e Kwartaal 1989 Nr. 2105.321 (Den Haag: Author, 1989); BVD, Revolutionaire Anti Racistiese Aktie. De Anti-Imperialistische Stroming in Nederland. No. 2197054-88 (Den Haag: Min BZK, 1993). a See paragraph “Anti-Islam Actions by the Extreme Right” for an appreciation of right-wing extremism. Note: Minister of Home Affairs, Contra Terrorism. 29754 Nr. 189, April 13th 2010 (The Hague: Author, 2010). Note: NCTB, Individuele bedreigers van publieke personen in Nederland. Fenomeenanalyse en een beleidsverkenning (Den Haag: Author, 2010), 51. Note: NCTB, Individuele bedreigers van publieke personen in Nederland. Fenomeenanalyse en een beleidsverkenning (Den Haag: Author, 2010), 74–75. We will not look into violent action committed by foreign organisations on Dutch territory, like the 1971 attack on an oil terminal by El Fatah, the hostage taking of the French ambassador by the Japanese Red Army in 1974, or the 1979 attack by the IRA on the British ambassador. Nor will we pay attention to violence in the course of mass demonstrations, evictions of occupied buildings, and so forth. Leena Malkki, How Terrorist Campaigns End: The Campaigns of the Rode Jeugd in The Netherlands and the Symbionese Liberation Army in the United States (Helsinki: University of Helsinki, 2010), 35. Ibid., 35. Ibid., 37. Ibid., 39. Ibid., 45. Ibid., 47. Ibid., 48; BVD, Maandoverzicht [Monthly Review], nr. 4-1979, Nr. 1324.696 (Den Haag: Author, 1977); BVD, Maandoverzicht [Monthly Review], nr. 6-1977, Nr. 1342.580 (Den Haag: Author, 1977); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht 1e kwartaal 1981 [Quarterly Review, 1st Quarter], Nr. 1538.691 (Den Haag: Author, 1981); Siem Eikelenboom, Niet Bang Om Te Sterven. Dertig Jaar Terrorisme in Nederland [Afraid to Die. Thirty Year of Terrorism in the Netherlands] (Amsterdam: Nieuw Amsterdam, 2007), 141–170; Beatrice de Graaf and Leena Malkki, “Killing it Softly? Explaining the Early Demise of Left-Wing Terrorism in The Netherlands,” Terrorism and Political Violence 22, no. 4 (2010): 623–640; Paul Moussault and Jan Lust, Rood Verzetsfront. Aanzetten tot Stadsguerrilla in Nederland. Een Reconstructie [Red Resistance Front. Initiatives towards Urban Guerrilla in The Netherlands] (Breda: Papieren Tijger, 2009). See Peter Klerks, Terreurbestrijding in Nederland, 1970–1988 [Counterterrorism in the Netherlands, 1970–1988] (Amsterdam: Ravijn, 1989), 217–218; Eikelenboom, Niet bang om te sterven (see note 8 above), 141–148. Malkki, How Terrorist Campaigns End (see note 2 above), 56. Ibid., 57, 59. Ibid., 61. See also Jacco Pekelder, Sympathie voor de RAF. De Rote Armee Fraktion in Nederland, 1970–1980 [Sympathy for the RAF. The RAF in the Netherlands, 1970–1980] (Amsterdam: Mets & Schilt, 2007), 81–101, 317–319. Malkki, How Terrorist Campaigns End (note 2 above), 65. Ibid., 65. Ibid., 65–66. Martijn Rasser, “The Dutch Response to Moluccan Terrorism, 1970–1978,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28, no. 6 (2005): 483. Ibid., 483. Eikelenboom, Niet bang om te sterven (see note 8 above), 110–140; Martijn Rasser, “The Dutch Response to Moluccan Terrorism, 1970–1978,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28, no. 6 (2005): 481–492; BVD, Maandoverzicht nr. 5, Nr. 1339.855 (Den Haag: Author, 1977); BVD, Maandoverzicht nr. 6, Nr. 1342.580 (Den Haag: Author, 1977); BVD, Maandoverzicht nr. 7/8, Nr. 1350.205 (Den Haag: Author, 1977); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht 4e kwartaal, Nr. 1410.798 (Den Haag: Author, 1978); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2000 (Den Haag: Author, 2000). See Notulen Van de Vergadering van Procureurs-Generaal, Fgd. Directeuren van Politie Met het Hoofd van de Binnenlandse Veiligheidsdienst in het Ministerie van Justitie op 23 September 1971 [Notes of the Meeting of the Procuratory-General and Directors of Police With the Head of the Security Service], RA 1972/001 (The Hague: Archive Ministry of Justice, 1971). BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht 2e Kwartaal 1983, Nr. 1679.711 (Den Haag: Author, 1983). BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht Binnenlandse Veiligheidsdienst 1e Kwartaal 1982, Nr. 1598.854 (Den Haag: Author, 1982). BVD, Kwartaalbericht BVD 1987, 2e Kwartaal 1987 Nr. 2056.843 (Den Haag: Author, 1987); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1980, 2e Kwartaal 1980 – Nr. 1495.359 (Den Haag: Author, 1980). Frank J. Buijs, Overtuiging en Geweld. Vreedame en Gewelddadige Acties Tegen de Apartheid [Persuasion and Violence. Peaceful and Violent Actions Against Apartheid] (Amsterdam: Babylon/De Geus, 1995), 69. BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1985, 2e Kwartaal 1985 (Den Haag: Author, 1985). Buijs, Overtuiging en Geweld (see note 23 above), 173; BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1985, 4e Kwartaal 1985 (Den Haag: Author, 1985); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1987, 1e Kwartaal 1987 Nr. 2048.927 (Den Haag: Author, 1987); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1987, 4e Kwartaal 1987 Nr. 2070.330 (Den Haag: Author, 1987); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1988, 4e Kwartaal 1988 Nr. 2094.467 (Den Haag: Author, 1988); Klerks, Terreurbestrijding in Nederland, 1970–1988 (see note 9 above). BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1988, 3e Kwartaal 1988 Nr. 2088.557 (Den Haag: Author, 1988); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1988, 4e Kwartaal 1988 Nr. 2094.467 (Den Haag: Author, 1988). Only one of the arrested suspects was convicted. Due to procedural faults, his original conviction of 6 years was changed in appeal to a conviction of one year. To this very day it is unclear who exactly belonged to RaRa. BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht 3e Kwartaal 1989, Nr. 2110.419 (Den Haag: Author, 1989). Buijs, Overtuiging en Geweld (see note 23 above), 251. Erwin R. Muller, Terrorisme en Politieke Verantwoordelijkheid. Gijzelingen, Aanslagen en Ontvoeringen in Nederland [Terrorism and Political Responsibility. Hostages, Attacks and Kidnappings in the Netherlands] (Arnhem: Gouda Quint, 1994), 378–380. BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht 4e Kwartaal 1989, Nr. 2115986 (Den Haag: Author, 1989); BVD, Kwartaaloverzicht BVD 1989, 2e Kwartaal 1989 Nr. 2105.321 (Den Haag: Author, 1989); BVD, Revolutionaire Anti Racistiese Aktie. De Anti-imperialistische Stroming in Nederland. No. 2197054-88 (Den Haag: Min BZK, 1993). BVD, Jaarverslag 1991 (Den Haag: Author, 1991); BVD, 2e Kwartaalbericht 1990 (Den Haag: Author, 1990). BVD, Jaarverslag 1993 (Den Haag: Author, 1993); BVD, Jaarverslag 1994 (Den Haag: Author, 1994); BVD, Jaarverslag 1995 (Den Haag: Author, 1995); BVD, Jaarverslag 1997 (Den Haag: Author, 1997); BVD, Jaarverslag 1998 (Den Haag: Author, 1998); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2004 (Den Haag: AVD, 2004). The Dutch Security Agency changed its name in 2002 from Internal Security Agency BVD to AIVD: General Intelligence and Security Service. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2011 (Den Haag: Author, 2011). GISS, Animal Rights Activism in The Netherlands: Between Peaceful and Burning Protest (The Hague: GISS, 2004). AIVD, Jaarverslag 2004 (Den Haag: Author, 2004). BVD, Jaarverslag 1997 (Den Haag: Author, 1997); BVD, Jaarverslag 1998 (Den Haag: Author, 1998); BVD, Jaarverslag 1999 (Den Haag: Author, 1999); BVD, Jaarverslag 2001 (Den Haag: Author, 2001); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2002 (Den Haag: Author, 2002); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2010 (Den Haag: Author, 2010); GISS, Animal Rights Activism in The Netherlands (see note 36 above). GISS, The Flames of Resistance: Growing Opposition to Dutch Immigration and Asylum Policy (The Hague: Author, 2010); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2011 (Den Haag: Author, 2011). Minister of Home Affairs, Contra Terrorism. 29754 Nr. 189, April 13th 2010 (The Hague: Author, 2010). For an overview and analysis of the rise of Pim Fortuyn and the turmoil of those days see: Jelle van Buuren, “Holland's Own Kennedy Affair: Conspiracy Theories on the Murder of Pim Fortuyn,” Historical Social Research 38, no. 1 (2013): 257–285. LJN: AF7291, Rechtbank Amsterdam, 13/123078-02. GISS, Violent Jihad in The Netherlands: Current Trends in the Islamist Terrorist Threat (The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2006), 29; AIVD, Jaarverslag 2003 (Den Haag: Author,). Lorenzo Vidino, “The Hofstad Group: The New Face of Terrorist Networks in Europe,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 30, no. 7 (2007): 588; GISS, Violent Jihad in The Netherlands (see note 43 above), 36. For other AIVD publications on Jihad see: GISS, From Dawa to Jihad: The Various Threats Posed by Radical Islam to the Democratic Rule of Law (The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2004); GISS, The Radical Dawa in Transition: The Rise of Islamic Neoradicalims in The Netherlands (The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2007); GISS, Local Jihadist Networks in The Netherlands: An Evolving Threat (The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2010). Description of this case is based, amongst others, on the oral pleadings of the National Prosecution in the Hofstad Group case. National Prosecutor's Office, Requisitoir van de officier van Justitie, part I, 23 January 2006 and part II, 25 January 2006; LJN: Case against Mohammed B., AU 0025, Amsterdam District Court, no. 13/129227-04, 26 July 2005; LJN: AV5108, Rotterdam District Court, 10 March 2006 (compilation of verdicts concerning the Hofstadgroep); LJN: BC2576, The Hague Court of Appeal, 23 January 2008 (appeal); LJN: BK5172, Supreme Court, 2 February 2010 (cassation); LJN: BO7690, Amsterdam Court of Appeal, 17 December 2010 (retrial on appeal), Transnational Terrorism, Security & the Rule of Law, The ‘Hofstadgroep,’ Deliverable 5, Work package 3, “Citizens and Governance in a Knowledge-Based Society” (2007), http://www.transnationalterrorism.eu/tekst/publications/Hofstadgroep.pdf. NCTb, Salafisme in Nederland [Salafism in the Netherlands] (The Hague: Author, 2008), 25. Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 583. Ibid., 582. Ibid., 583. See also: Emerson Vermaat, De Hofstadgroep. Portret van een Radicaal-Islamitisch Netwerk [The Hofstad Group. Portrait of a Radical-Islamic Network] (Soesterberg: Uitgeverij Aspekt, 2005), 76–77. National Prosecutor's Office, Requisitoir van de officier van Justitie; Verdict in the Hofstad Group case; “The ‘Hofstadgroep.’” Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 585. Statement of Interior Minister Johan Remkes during the parliamentary debate on the Murder. Handelingen Tweede Kamer, November 11 2004, No. 22, 1303; Jutta Chorus and Ahmet Olgun, In Godsnaam. Het Jaar van Theo van Gogh [Insjallah. The year of Theo van Gogh] (Amsterdam: Contact, 2005), 200. Albert Benschop, “Chronicle of a Political Murder Foretold: Jihad in The Netherlands,” http://www.sociosite.org/jihad_nl_en.php. Chorus and Olgun, In Godsnaam (see note 52 above), 41–85. COT, The ‘Hofstadgroep,’ Deliverable 5, Work package 3, “Citizens and Governance in a Knowledge-Based Society” (see note 45 above), 4–6. LJN: AU0025, Rechtbank Amsterdam, 13/129227; Chorus and Olgun, In Godsnaam (see note 52 above), 41–85; Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 579–592. Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 587. COT, The ‘Hofstadgroep,’ Deliverable 5, Work package 3 (see note 45 above), 6; Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 583–584. Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 579–592; COT, The ‘Hofstadgroep,’ Deliverable 5, Work package 3 (see note 45 above). AIVD, Jaarverslag 2006 (Den Haag: Author, 2006); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2007 (Den Haag: Author, 2007); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2008 (Den Haag: Author, 2008); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2009 (Den Haag: Author, 2009); AIVD, Jaarverslag 2010 (Den Haag: Author, 2010); GISS, Local Jihadist Networks in The Netherlands: An Evolving Threat (The Hague: Ministry of Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2010). Vidino, “The Hofstad Group” (see note 44 above), 588. Edwin Bakker, “Terrorisme en Politiek Gewelddadig Activisme in Nederland” [Terrorism and Political Violent Activism in the Netherlands], Jaarboek Vrede en Veiligheid (2008): 226. Table of terrorist related arrests in The Netherlands since September 11, 2001: http://www.onjo.nl/fileadmin/uploads/BO/be_users/documents/Argos/arrestatie-terrorisme-tot-2010.pdf. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2004 (Den Haag: Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties, 2005). Jaap van Donselaar and Peter R. Rodrigues, ANNEX Monitor Racisme en Extreem-Rechts, Zesde Rapportage: Ontwikkelingen na de Moord op Van Gogh (Leiden/Amsterdam: Anne Frank Stichting, Onderzoek en Documentatie Universiteit Leiden, Departement Bestuurskunde, 2004). BVD, Jaarverslag 1991 (Den Haag: Leiden/Amsterdam, 1991). Jaap van Donselaar, De Staat Paraat? De Bestrijding van Extreem-Rechts in West-Europa [The State Prepared? Fighting the Extreme Right in West-Europe] (Amsterdam: Babylon/De Geus, 1995), 64. GISS, Right-Wing Extremism and the Extreme Right in The Netherlands (The Hague: Author, 2012). Ibid.; see also “Lone Wolves, ook in Nederland?” Antifascistische Onderzoeksgroep Kafka, http://kafka.antenna.nl/?p=3352. GISS, Right-Wing Extremism and the Extreme Right in The Netherlands (see note 68 above). Donselaar, De Staat paraat? (see note 67 above), 59. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2005 (Den Haag: Author, 2005). “Londsdale” refers to a popular clothing label that for some time was popular in the right-wing extremist scene. According to right-wing extremist skinheads, the combination of the letters NSDA in LONSDALE refers to the NSDAP, the nationalist-socialist party of Adolf Hitler. Although for most youngsters this national-socialist connotation is not the reason for wearing the jackets, the right-wing extremist image sticks. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2004 (Den Haag; Author, 2004); see also: AIVD, “Lonsdale-Jongeren” in Nederland. Feiten en Fictie van een Vermeende Rechts-Extremistische Subcultuur. Nr. 2381145/01 (Den Haag: Author, 2005). AIVD, Jaarverslag 2006 [Extreme-Right: Body of Thought and Organisations] (Den Haag: Author, 2006). AIVD, Rechts-Extremisme: Gedachtegoed en Groeperingen, https://www.aivd.nl/onderwerpen-0/extremisme/rechts-extremisme/gedachtegoed/. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2011 (Den Haag: Author, 2011). Benschop, “Chronicle of a Political Murder Foretold: Jihad in The Netherlands” (see note 53 above). Ibid. Ibid. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2011 (see note 77 above). Frank Bovenkerk, Bedreigingen in Nederland. Verkenning in Opdracht van Politie en Wetenschap [Threats in the Netherlands. Exploration Ordered for by Police and Science] (Utrecht: Willem Pompe Instituut Universiteit Utrecht, 2005). Ibid. Ibid., 51. Ibid., 51. NCTB, Individuele Bedreigers van Publieke Personen in Nederland. Fenomeenanalyse en Een Beleidsverkenning [Individual Threateners of Public Persons in the Netherlands. Analysis of a Phenomenon and Exploration of Policy Options] (Den Haag: NCTb, 2010), 51. Ibid., 74–75. Ibid., 74–75. Openbaar Ministerie, Politici in de Haagse Regio Minder Bedreigd, March 20, 2012, http://www.om.nl/onderwerpen/bedreigingen/@158578/politici-haagse/. Arendo Joustra, “Nederland Verliest Onschuld met Aanslag,” Elsevier, April 30, 2009, http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Opinie/Commentaren/232453/Nederland-verliest-onschuld-met-aanslag.htm. “Koninginnedag Zal Nooit Meer Zijn Wat het Altijd Geweest Is,” Trouw, May 1, 2009, http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/4324/Nieuws/article/detail/1147961/2009/05/01/Koninginnedag-zal-nooit-meer-zijn-wat-het-altijd-geweest-is.dhtml. See www.rondom10.nl, broadcast from May 2, 2009. Kamerstukken, Koninginnedag 2009. Verslag van Een Algemeen Overleg. 32054, nr. 1 (Den Haag: Ministerie BZK, 2008-2009); NCTb, Onderzoek Functioneren Stelsel Bewaken en Beveiligen Koninginnedag 2009 (Den Haag: Author, 2009). Note that the NCTb is consequently speaking of an “incident” rather than an “attack.” KLPD, Onderzoeksrapportage Koninginnedag 2009. Bevindingen Recherche Onderzoek Dienst Nationale Recherche (Driebergen: Author, 2009). Kamerstukken, Koninginnedag 2009. Verslag van Een Algemeen Overleg. 32054, nr. 22009 (Den Haag: Ministerie BZK, 2010). For video footage of the incident see http://www.novatv.nl/page/detail/uitzendingen/7798/Persconferentie+naar+aanleiding+incident+tijdens+dodenherdenking#. Openbaar Ministerie, Samenvatting TGO Onderzoek Komeet Naar Schietpartij Alphen a/d Rijn op 9 April 2011 (Den Haag: Author, 2011). http://nos.nl/artikel/255240-tristan-wilde-god-straffen.html. Openbaar Ministerie, Samenvatting TGO Onderzoek Komeet naar schietpartij (see note 97 above). NCTb, National Counterterrorism Strategy 2011–2015 (The Hague: Author 2011), http://english.nctb.nl/current_topics/reports/. Ibid. Kamerstukken, Terrorismebestrijding. Verslag van Een Algemeen Overleg. 29754 nr. 208 (Den Haag: Ministerie van BZK, 2011-2012). “KLPD Focust Ook op Zogenoemde Solistische Dreiger,” Spits, January 4, 2012. AIVD, Jaarverslag 2009 (Den Haag: Author, 2009). AIVD, Jaarverslag 2010 (Den Haag: Author, 2010). Ibid. COT, Lone Wolf Terrorism. Final Draft. Case Study for Work Package 3, “Citizens and Governance in a Knowledge-Based Society” (2007). Jelle van Buuren, “Performative Violence? The Multitude of Lone Wolf Terrorism,” Terrorism: An Electronic Journal and Knowledge Base 1, no. 1 (2012): 1–25. Ibid. Beatrice de Graaf, Evaluating Counterterrorism Performance: A Comparative Study (London/New York: Routledge, 2011). Bakker, “Terrorisme en Politiek Gewelddadig Activisme in Nederland” (see note 62 above), 226. Zygmunt Bauman, Liquid Fear (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006); Ullrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (London: Sage, 1992); Hans Boutellier, De Veiligheidsutopie. Hedendaags Onbehagen en Verlangen Rond Misdaad en Straf [The Safety Utopia. Unease and Longing in the Context of Crime and Punishment] (Den Haag: Boom Juridische Uitgevers, 2005); Frank Furedi, Culture of Fear: Risk-Taking and the Morality of Low Expectations (London: Cassell, 1997); Frank Furedi, Culture of Fear Revisited (London: Continuum Press, 2006). Bakker, “Terrorisme en Politiek Gewelddadig Activisme in Nederland” (see note 62 above), 226. De Graaf, Evaluating Counterterrorism Performance: A Comparative Study (see note 110 above). GISS, Jihadism on the Web: Breeding Ground for Jihad in the Modern Age (The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2012), 20. R. A. Fein and B. Vossekuil, “Assassination in the United States: An Operational Study of Recent Assassins, Attackers, and near-Lethal Approachers,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 44, no. 2 (1999): 321–333. Additional informationNotes on contributorsJelle van Buuren Jelle van Buuren is PhD Researcher and Lecturer at the Centre for Terrorism and Counterterrorism, Leiden University. Beatrice de Graaf Beatrice de Graaf is a Full Professor of Conflict and Security History at the Centre for Terrorism and Counterterrorism, Leiden University.