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Sustainable mobility transitions and the challenge of countervailing trends: the case of personal aeromobility

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 21; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09537320802625330

1465-3990

Maurie J. Cohen,

Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure

Abstract Research on sustainable mobility transitions has focused on battery-electric vehicles, urban 'smart' cars, fuel-cell powered transport modes and power-assisted bicycles. While these studies have usefully exposed some of the dynamics governing sociotechnical change, developments outside the purview of sustainability have been largely ignored. A critical area of neglect concerns the growing popularity of personal aeromobility. Passenger dissatisfaction with commercial airlines, public concerns about terrorism, increasing affluence and creative marketing have expanded interest in private aviation. In parts of the USA, customised air travel is becoming a straightforward and affordable transport alternative. This article describes the mounting popularity of four segments of this trend: business/personal airplane acquisition, fractional aircraft ownership, flight-time cards and air taxis. It also highlights the role that the federal government is currently playing to overcome the technological obstacles to more pervasive personal aeromobility. A concluding section considers the ramifications of these activities on contemporary efforts to foster sustainable mobility and to conceptualise viable transition pathways. Keywords: personal mobilityfuture of aviationmobility futuressmall aircraft transportation systemnext generation air transport systemvery light jetsmicrojets Acknowledgements Preparation of this article has been supported by an AT&T Industrial Ecology Faculty Fellowship. I would also like to acknowledge the valuable input that I received from the journal's referees and the collegial support of the managing editor. Notes While the taxonomy presented here is outlined in terms of explicit typological categories, it merits observing that the various authors have tended to contribute to more than one perspective. There is also the related claim that gas-electric hybrids provide a relatively uncomplicated way for consumers to gain familiarity with electric cars and that this trend can pave the way for more thoroughgoing changes involving plug-in hybrids and other alternative-fuel vehicles. The Sparrow was manufactured by Corbin Motors (acquired in 2004 by Myers Motors) and the company designed a related model dubbed the Merlin that never went into production. Images of both vehicles are available at http://www.3wheelers.com/corbin.html. Gizmo is produced by the Oregon-based Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Company (NEVCO). Images of Gizmo are available at http://www.nevco-ev.com. Dubbed MITKA (an acronym from the Dutch name Mobiliteitsconcept voor individueel transport op de korte), this vehicle was conceived as part of a collaborative project involving the Design for Sustainability Group at the Delft University of Technology, TNO and others. Images of MITKA are available at http://www.kathalys.com. For further discussion, see Brown et al. Citation(2003) and Berchicci and Vergragt Citation(2002). Upright electric scooters such as the Segway Human Transporter have also begun to attract considerable interest as urban mobility vehicles. See, for example, Schrage Citation(2003), Marshall Citation(2003) and Shaheen, Rodier, and Eaken Citation(2005). Segway has also begun to publicise the Centaur, a prototype that is roughly akin to a miniature off-road four-wheeler (see http://www.segway.com/products/centaur). Also germane in this regard is Toyota's i-swing, a personal mobility machine that company officials describe as a 'wearable vehicle' (see http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/news/05/1011_1.html). Some readers may see a certain similarity between these designs and the star-crossed Sinclair C5 that was produced on a limited commercial basis during the mid 1980s. For a discussion of this progression, refer to Thisdell Citation(2005) and http://www.sinclairc5.com. The weather-induced problems experienced during the winter of 2007 by JetBlue, a low cost airline based in the USA, provide vivid evidence of the organisational fragility of the prevailing system of commercial air travel. As graphically demonstrated by the JetBlue episode, the logistical challenges of coordinating aircraft with crews and ticketed passengers can quickly spiral out of control and lead to complete paralysis (Bailey Citation2007). It also bears noting that commercial airlines have been identified as major contributors to global climate change – as well as perpetrators of unsustainable practices more generally – and this has led to European proposals to impose mandatory controls on aviation. Personal aeromobility in the USA, as measured by distance travelled in general aviation aircraft, accounted in 2001 for approximately 3.2% of total air passenger miles (see Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Table 1-37 at http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_37.html. Eclipse Aviation, based in Albuquerque, is planning to manufacture upwards of 500 airplanes per year with sales aimed at both individuals and corporate fleets. Another entrant into this general market is the single-engine Cirrus SR-22 that is priced at US$300,000 and has a cruising speed of 165 knots over a range of 1000 miles. To ease the anxieties of passengers concerned about the safety of small aircraft, the plane is outfitted with its own emergency parachute. A related form of mobility currently undergoing rapid expansion involves the use of helicopters for intra-urban transport. Owing to a variety of local factors including unmanageable congestion, fear of crime and status seeking by business executives, helicopter travel has become a common way to move around in São Paulo (Cwerner Citation2006). This observation is gleaned from data reported by the National Business Aviation Association (6.5 million flight hours for business purposes vs 11 million flight hours for personal purposes in 2002). At slight variation, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association claims that 70% of the flight hours on general aviation aircraft are for business and commercial purposes (see http://web.nbaa.org/public/news/stats/factbook/2004/section4.php#01). Another estimate suggests that 80% of private aviation is for leisure purposes (Trebay Citation2006). Other companies selling fractional airplane ownership include FlexJet (a subsidiary of Bombardier), Flight Options (a subsidiary of Raytheon) and CitationShares (a jointly owned subsidiary of Textron and TAG Aviation). In the past, air taxis have typically been used to fly recreational travellers to rugged or otherwise inaccessible locations. Small on-demand aircraft have also been commonly employed to transport personnel to remote work sites and to shuttle valuable freight and documents. See http://www.flyimagineair.com and http://www.linearair.com. See http://www.flypogo.com/about/leadership.html. The successor organisation to SATS is the Consortium for Aviation System Advancement based in Daytona Beach, Florida (see http://www.casa.aero). A larger scale-coordinating role is being played by the Federal Department of Transportation's Joint Planning and Development Office under the auspices of its programme on the Next Generation Air Transportation System (see http://www.jpdo.aero). NASA reports that 98% of the American population lives within 20 miles of an existing general aviation facility (see http://www.asc.nasa.gov/factsheet/SATS_Fact_Sheet.htm). The identification of trends that challenge efforts to foster sustainability is not in and of itself a particularly interesting observation as evidence of countervailing trends is widespread. For instance, despite unprecedented discussion and negotiation, the volume of greenhouse gas emissions in most countries has increased over the past decade. At the same time, one must remain cognisant of other processes favouring the geographic relocalisation of some lifestyle practices. With respect to agro-food systems, see Hinrichs Citation(2003) and Seyfang Citation(2006). Also useful from a more visionary standpoint and with direct relevance to sustainable mobility is an idea advanced by Wells and Nieuwenhuis (Citation2004a, Citationb) to manufacture automobiles on a localised basis in accordance with a micro-factory retailing model. It is instructive to keep in mind that each subsequent advance in long-distance communication capability over the past century – from the telegraph to the telephone to the Internet – has unambiguously stimulated demand for physical travel. For a review of these issues, see Roy and Filiatrault Citation(1998), Denstadli Citation(2004) and Arnfalk and Kogg Citation(2003). Some scenarios of future personal aeromobility are predicated upon technologies that would eliminate the need for a dedicated pilot – a development for which there is obvious precedent. With the streamlining of operational systems, the organisation of affordable training programmes and the design of more failsafe control equipment, aircraft pilots will likely become obsolete in much the same way as the automobile chauffeurs of an earlier era. Progress in this direction obviously brings us closer to the prospect of individualised flying machines, long a staple of popular science fiction. See, for example, Robb Citation(2005). It bears observing in this regard that the most significant advances in fuel-cell technology have been achieved in research programmes associated with the space shuttle. For consideration of prospects for alternative-fuel aircraft, refer to Oman Citation(2004), Wardle Citation(2003) and Ciotti Citation(2002). The prospect of dual-use airport-parks seems to be implicit in the design of the M400 Skycar, a vehicle being developed by Moller International for both surface and air-borne travel, that could use a nearby park or neighbourhood landing strip for take-offs and landings (see, for example, Excell Citation2005). From a different perspective, Kasarda Citation(2000) has coined the term 'aerotropolis' to describe a new generation of mega-airports that serve as locational attractors for business and regional economic hubs.