Sonidos Negros: On the Blackness of Flamenco
2014; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 37; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/01472526.2014.877316
ISSN1532-4257
Autores Tópico(s)Cuban History and Society
ResumoAbstract Flamenco imagery has long revolved around the Spanish Gypsy. Gypsies fascinate, precisely because they tread the line between Saracen and European worlds. Representations of dancing Hispano-Gypsies, emerging in Christian Spain out of the fertile substrate left by defeated, enslaved, and exiled Jews, Muslims, and Ibero-Africans, embodied the continued presence of those absent, and provided a corporeal language for aesthetic and moral values that could not be spoken. How did early modern Hispano-Gypsy performance mediate and define the boundaries between black and white, slave and free, Christian and Muslim? How Africanist is flamenco? With a close analysis of three dance types—guineo/villancico, fandangos, and bulerías—this essay explores the ways flamenco is threaded through with blackness. View correction statement:Corrigendum ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The first version of this paper was presented at the conference of the Congress on Research in Dance in 2011. I have benefited from the generosity and insight of Pennee Bender, Clara Mora Chinoy, Thomas DeFrantz, Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Frank Flynn, Hanaah Frechette, Peter Manuel, Ana Yepes, Estela Zatania, Brook Zern, and Lynn Matluck Brooks. Notes 1. Katherine Lee Bates, "The Gypsies of Spain," The New York Times, May 14, 1899. 2. Christopher Maurer, "Federico García Lorca: His Life in Brief," García-lorca.org, Un poeta en Nueva York, http://garcia-lorca.org/Federico/Biografia.aspx (accessed October 11, 2013), on criticism of Lorca's use of the Gypsy; Christopher Maurer and Andrés Soria Olmedo, curatorial statement displayed in Back Tomorrow: Federico García Lorca / Poet in New York (exhibition, New York Public Library, April 5–July 20, 2013), on "fountain"; The New York Public Library website, "Back Tomorrow: Federico García Lorca/ Poet in New York," http://nypl.org/events/exhibitions/back-tomorrow-federico-garcia-lorca-poet-new-york (accessed October 12, 2013), on "howl"; Back Tomorrow, exhibition brochure, 7, on "Moor." All translations are mine unless otherwise noted. 3. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Richard Philcox (New York: Grove Press, 2008), xviii. 4. Lemuel Johnson, The Devil, the Gargoyle and the Buffoon: The Negro as Metaphor in Western Literature (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1971), x; Maurer and Olmedo, curatorial statement, Back Tomorrow. 5. Quoted in Walter Starkie, "The Gipsy in Andalusian Folk-Lore and Folk-Music," Proceedings of the Musical Association, 62nd Session (1935–1936), 2; María Fría, "Nights of Flamenco and Blues in Spain," in Blackening Europe: The African American Presence, ed. Heike Raphael-Hernandez (New York: Routledge, 2004), 143. 6. See Mihaela Madure, "Blackening Gypsy Slavery: The Roumanian Case," in Blackening Europe, 263–83. 7. José Luis Navarro García, Semillas de ébano: El elemento Negro y Afroamericano en el baile flamenco (Sevilla: Portada Editorial, S.L., 1998), 43. 8. See Ed de Moor, Otto Zwartjes, and G. J. H. van Gelder, Poetry, Politics and Polemics: Cultural Transfer between the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996). 9. Leonardo Piasere and Antonio Campigotto, "From Margutte to Cingar: The Archeology of an Image," 100 Years of Gypsy Studies, vol. 5, ed. Matt T. Salo (Cheverly, Md.: The Gypsy Lore Society, 1990), 15–31. See also Anthony M. Cummings, "Dance and 'The Other': The Moresca," in Seventeenth-Century Ballet, a Multi-Art Spectacle, ed. Barbara Grammeniati (Bloomington, Ind.: Xlibris Corporation, 2011), 39–60. I am grateful to Antoni Pizà for suggesting I consider the Fiestas de Moros y Cristianos. 10. Lynn Matluck Brooks, The Dances of the Processions of Seville in Spain's Golden Age (Kassel, Germany: Ed. Reichenberger, 1988), 34, 39, 160, 176, 394. 11. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 12–13; Aurelia Martín Casares and Marga G. Barranco, "The Musical Legacy of Black Africans in Spain: A Review of Our Sources," Anthropological Notebooks, vol. 15, no. 2 (2009): 51–60. 12. Navarro García, Semillas de ébano, 41; Alfonso Franco Silva, "La esclavitud en Sevilla a finales de la Edad Media y comienzos de la Edad Moderna," in Isidoro Moreno, La antigua hermandad de los negros de Sevilla: etnicidad, poder y sociedad en 600 años de historia (Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla y Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía, 1997), 484. 13. María Elena Sánchez Ortega, "Evolución y contexto historico de los gitanos españoles," in Entre la marginacion y el racismo: Reflexiones sobre la vida de los gitanos, ed. Teresa San Roman (Madrid: Alianza Editorial S.A., 1986), 18. 14. Aurelia Martín Casares, "Comba y Dominga: la imagen sexualizada de las negroafricanas en la literatura del cordel de la España moderna," in La esclavitud negroafricana en la historia de España: siglos XVI y XVII, ed. Martín Casares y Margarita García Barranco (Granada: Comares, 2010), 175. See also Mar Martínez Góngora, "La invención de la 'blancura': el estereotipo y la mímica en 'Boda de negros' de Francisco de Quevedo," Modern Language Notes, vol. 120, no. 2 (2005): 262–86. 15. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, "Preciosa La Gitanilla" (1613), in Novelas Ejemplares (Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, S.A., 1938), 21. 16. I paraphrase bell hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (Boston, Mass: South End Press, 1992), 4. 17. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; rpt. New York: Vintage Books/Library of America, 1990), 3. 18. Prosper Mérimeé, Carmen and Other Stories, trans. and ed. Nicholas Jotcham (1846; rpt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 28. 19. "Memory of the World: American Colonial Music: A Sample of Its Documentary Richness," documentary heritage material submitted by Bolivia, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru and recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register in 2007, p. 4, 3.2.2, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2007, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-1/american-colonial-music-a-sample-of-its-documentary-richness/ (accessed October 12, 2013). 20. Jordi Savall, "Guineo a 5: Eso Rigor e Repente by Gaspar Fernandes," El Nuevo Mundo: Folías Criollas, performed by La Capella Reial de Catalunya, Hesperion XXI, http://youtube.com/watch?v=7bmsb-VcRv8(accessed October 6, 2013). 21. Baltasar Fra Molinero, La imagen de los negros en el teatro del Siglo de Oro (Madrid: Siglo XXI de España, 1995), 7–8. 22. Alan Dergal Rautenberg, "Eso Rigor e Repente (Gaspar Fernandes)," ChoralWiki/ CPDL.org, February 1, 2002, http://www1.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Eso_rigor_e_repente_(Gaspar_Fernandes) (accessed October 6, 2013); Coro de la Facultad de Psicología (UAM), "Traducción de 'Eso Rigor e Repente'" http://corofacuam.blogspot.com/2010/10/traduccion-de-eso-rigor-e-repente.html (accessed October 6, 2013). 23. Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 66, 81–83. 24. "Cumbé," in Diccionario de la lengua castellana: en que se explica el verdadero sentido de las voces, su naturaleza y calidad, con las frases o modos de hablar, los proverbios o refranes, y otras cosas convenientes al uso de la lengua (Madrid: del Hierro, 1729), 700. 25. Emilio Cotarelo y Mori, Colección de entremeses, loas, bailes, jácaras y mojigangas desde fines del siglo 16 à mediados del 18, vol. 1 (Madrid: Bailly Ballière, 1911), ccxx; Horacio J. Becco, El tema del negro en cantos, bailes y villancicos de los siglos XVI y XVII (Buenos Aires: Ollantay, 1951), 21. 26. Navarro García, Semillas de ébano, 151. 27. Antonio García de León Griego, El mar de los deseos: el Caribe hispano musical. Historia y contrapunto, (Coyoacán, México: Siglo Veintiuno Eds., 2002), 170. 28. Martín Casares, "Comba y Dominga," 180. 29. Padre Juan de Mariana, Obras del Padre Juan de Mariana: Historia de España, tratado contra los juegos publicos, vol. 2 (1598; rpt. Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1854), 433. 30. Lynn Matluck Brooks, The Art of Dancing in Seventeenth-Century Spain: Juan de Esquivel Navarro and His World (Lewisburg, Penn.: Bucknell University Press, 2003), 152; Cotarelo, Colección de entremeses, vol. 1, cxc, cclxx. 31. Loo Yeo, "Bohemians/ Expanded Glossary: Vacunao," Salsa and Merengue Society, 1999, http://salsa-merengue.co.uk/4bohemians/expanded_glossary.html (accessed October 6, 2013). 32. Yvonne Daniel, Rumba: Dance and Social Change in Contemporary Cuba (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 4. 33. Kariamu Welsh-Asante, African Dance: An Artistic, Historical, and Philosophical Inquiry (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1994), 88. 34. Thompson, Tango, 157. 35. Martín Casares and Barranco, "The Musical Legacy of Black Africans in Spain," 56. 36. Rogério Budasz, "Black Guitar-Players and Early African-Iberian Music in Portugal and Brazil," Early Music, vol. 35, no. 1 (2007): 11. 37. The epigram opening this section is from Théophile Gautier, "Fanny Elssler in 'Le Diable Boiteux'" (1845), in The Romantic Ballet as Seen by Theéophile Gautier, trans and ed. Cyril Beaumont (New York: Books for Libraries, 1980), 15. On Spanish dance in classical ballet, see Lincoln Kirstein, Dance: A Short History of Classic Theatrical Dancing (New York: Dance Horizons, 1935), 162, 212, 229–30; Marius Petipa, Russian Ballet Master: The Memoirs of Marius Petipa, ed. Lillian Moore, trans. Helen Whittaker (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1958), 14–15. On the evolution of Spanish dance, see Rocio Plaza Orellana, Bailes de Andalucía en Londres y París (1830–1850) (Madrid: Arambel, 2005) and Los espectáculos escénicos en Sevilla bajo el gobierno de Godoy (1795–1808) (Seville: Diputación de Sevilla, 2007); and Claudia Jeschke, Gabi Vettermann, and Nicole Haitzinger, Les Choses Espagnoles: Research into the Hispanomania of 19th Century Dance (Munich: epodium Verlag, 2009). 38. Ana Yepes, "From the Jácara to the Sarabande," trans. Derek Matson, in "All'ungaresca—al espanol," Die Vielfalt der europäischen Tanzkultur 1420–1820: Proceedings of the 3rd Dance Symposion (Rothenfels, June 2012), ed. Uwe Schlottermüller, Maria Richter and Howard Weiner, 232. 39. Brooks, The Art of Dancing in Seventeenth-Century Spain, 280 (Spanish on p. 228). 40. The quotations in this paragraph are, in order of appearance, from Thompson, Tango, 89, 153, 282. 41. Marco Jesús Bertrán, "Madroños, caireles y faraláes: divagaciones de indumentaria femenina," in Hojas selectas (Barcelona: Salvat y Cia, 1902), 33–48; Susannah Worth, Andalusian Dress and the Andalusian Image of Spain, 1759–1936 (doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1990), 48–55. See also Rocio Plaza Orellana, Historia de la moda en España: el vestido femenino entre 1750 y 1850 (Córdoba: Almuzara, 2009). 42. Lieve Vangehuchten, "¿Qué canta y baila, corta y vuela, y viene del norte a la vez? El flamenco: un complejo problema de homonimia/polisemia," Revista de dialectología y tradiciones populares, vol. 59, no. 2 (2004): 136, note 10. See also Gerhard Steingress, "Ambiente flamenco y bohemia andaluza. Unos apuntes sobre el origen post-romántico del género Gitano-Andaluz," in El flamenco: identidades sociales, ritual y patrimonio cultural, ed. Cristina Cruces Roldán (Jerez: Centro Andaluz de Flamenco, 1996), 83–99. 43. For more on perceptions of Spain in late nineteenth-century France, see Annegret Fauser, Musical Encounters at the 1889 Paris World's Fair (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2005), 139–164, 216–278. 44. Dominique Dufour de Pradt, Mémoires historiques sur la révolution d'Espagne (Paris: Rosa [etc.], 1816), 168. On the Dumas quote, see Matthew Carr, Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain (New York: The New Press, 2009), xii, and Lisa Lampert-Weissig, Medieval Literature and Postcolonial Studies (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), 38. 45. William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1899), 272–73. 46. Ninotchka Bennahum, "Early Spanish Dancers on the New York Stage," in Ninotchka Bennahum and K. Meira Goldberg, 100 Years of Flamenco in New York City (New York: New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, 2013), 29. 47. Antonio Cairón, Compendio de las principales reglas del baile traducido del francés por Antonio Cairón y aumentado de una explicacion exacta y método de ejecutar la mayor parte de los bailes conocidos en España, tantos antiguos como modernos (Madrid: Imprenta Repulles, 1820), 100–1. 48. Steingress, "Ambiente flamenco y bohemia andaluza," 84. 49. George Borrow, The Zincali, or, an Account of the Gypsies of Spain, With an Original Collection of their Songs and Poetry, and a Copious Dictionary of their Language (1841; rpt. London and New York: John Lane, 1902), 67–68. 50. Terence M. Hughes, Revelations of Spain in 1845 (London: Bradbury and Evans, 1845), 414. 51. Severn Teackle Wallis, Glimpses of Spain; Or, Notes of an Unfinished Tour in 1849 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1854), 186–88. 52. Matteo Marcellus Vittucci, "Matteo," with Carola Goya, The Language of Spanish Dance (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 156–57. 53. "Gypsy mask" makes reference to Houston Baker, Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). 54. Vassili Botkine, Lettres sur l'Espagne (1845: rpt, Paris: Centre de Recherches de l'Institut d'Etudes Hispaniques, 1969), translated into Spanish and quoted in Navarro Garcia, Semillas de ébano, 214. Lénica Reyes Zúñiga and José Miguel Hernández Jaramillo, "Cádiz como eje vertebrador en España del discurso dialógico musical entre México y Andalucía en la etapa preflamenca," Revista del Centro de Investigación Flamenco Telethusa, vol. 4, no. 4 (June 2011): 32–43. 55. Navarro García, Semillas de ébano, 202. 56. Quoted in Ibid., 204. 57. Ibid., 209. 58. Quoted in Ibid., 210–11. 59. Quote from Julián Ribera y Tarragó, La música de la jota aragonesa, ensayo histórico, por Julián Ribera y Tarragó (Madrid: Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan, 1928), 66–67. See also Cairón, Compendio, 110; Cotarelo, Colección de entremeses, vol. 1, ccxliv–ccxlv. 60. Jeschke, Vettermann, and Haitzinger, Les Choses Espagnoles, 48–49. 61. Brooks, The Dances of the Processions of Seville, 201. 62. Cotarelo, Colección de entremeses, vol. 1, ccxxviii–ccxxix. 63. Thompson, Tango, 66. 64. Ibid., 97–98. 65. This quotation and the epigram are from Henry Swinburne, Travels through Spain, in the Years 1775 and 1776, vol. 1 (Dublin: S. Price, R. Cross, J. Williams, et al., 1779), 70, 354. 66. Felipe Pedraza Jiménez, "De Quevedo a Cervantes: la génesis de la jácara," in La comedia de caballerías: Actas de las XXVIII jornadas de teatro clásico de Almagro, 12, 13 y 14 de julio de 2005 (Almagro: Ed. de la Univ. de Castilla–La Mancha, 2006), 85; Cotarelo, Colección de entremeses, vol. 1, ccxliii. 67. Navarro García, Semillas de ébano, 59, 199, citing Municipal Archives of Jerez de la Frontera, September 14, 1464, folio 118. See also Rocío Plaza Orellana, Los espectáculos escénicos en Sevilla bajo el gobierno de Godoy (1795–1808); and Judith Etzion, "Spanish Music as Perceived in Western Music Historiography: A Case of the Black Legend?" International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, vol. 29, no. 2 (1998): 93–120. 68. Cristina Cruces Roldán, "Conferencia: El flamenco en la identidad andaluza," Flamenco En Red, January 23, 2013, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LViDPXqyeY (accessed October 8, 2013). 69. Jerónimo de Alba y Diéguez "El Bachiller Revoltoso," Libro de la gitanería de Triana de los años 1740 a 1750 que escribió el bachiller revoltoso para que no se imprimiera, ed. Antonio Castro Carrasco (Seville: Coria Gráfica, S.L., 1995), 3–4. 70. Pedro Calderón de la Barca, "Entremés del novio de la aldeana," in Arcadia de entremeses (Madrid: Angel Pasqual Rubio, 1723): 90; cited in Cotarelo, Colección de entremeses, vol. 1, ccxliv-ccxlv. 71. Martínez Góngora, "La invención de blancura," 163. 72. La Real Academia Española, "cascabel gordo," Diccionario de la lengua castellana, décimatercia edición (Madrid: Sres Hernando y Companía, 1809), 205; Fra Molinero, La imagen de los negros en el teatro, 13–15, 17. 73. Francisco de Quevedo, "Boda de negros," in Obras festivas, ed. Pablo Antonio de Tarsia (Madrid: F. de P. Mellado, 1844–45), 307. 74. Thomas DeFrantz, "The Black Beat Made Visible," in Of the Presence of the Body: Essays on Dance and Performance Theory, ed. André Lepecki (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2004), 65. 75. Ibid., 73. DeFrantz is referring to Jon Spencer's The Rhythms of Black Folk: Race, Religion, and Pan-Africanisms (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1995), 10. 76. Christopher Maurer and Andrés Soria Olmedo, curatorial statement displayed in Back Tomorrow: Federico García Lorca. 77. Reyes Zúñiga and Hernández Jaramillo, "Cádiz como eje vertebrador," 32–43. 78. Robert Farris Thompson, "An Aesthetic of the Cool: West African Dance," in Signifyin(g), Sanctifyin', and Slam Dunking: A Reader in African American Expressive Culture, ed. Gena Dagel Caponi (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 81–85. 79. Theodore Van Dam, "The Influence of West African Songs of Derision in the New World," African Music, vol. 1, no. 1 (1954): 53. 80. Ibid., 53. 81. DeFrantz, "The Black Beat Made Visible," 71. 82. Suárez Ávila, "Jaleos, gilianas, versus bulerías," 8; Brooks, The Art of Dancing in Seventeenth-Century Spain, 129 (Spanish on p. 237); Yepes, "Jácara," 234. 83. Gonzalo Correas and Cipriano Muñoz y Manzano Viñaza, Arte grande de la lengua castellana: Compuesto en 1626 (Madrid: El Conde de la Viñaza, 1903), 272. See also Dorothy Clotelle Clarke, "The Early Seguidilla," Hispanic Review, vol. 12, no. 3 (July 1944): 211–22, and Joseph E. Gillet, "Corominas' Diccionario crítico etimológico: An Appreciation with Suggested Additions," Hispanic Review, vol. 26, no. 4 (October 1958): 261–95. 84. Felipe Pedraza Jiménez, "De Quevedo a Cervantes: la génesis de la jácara," 78–79, citing Cotarelo, Colección de entremeses, vol. 1, p. cclxxv. 85. Bronwen Jean Heuer, The Discourse of the Ruffian in Quevedo's "Jácaras," Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1991, abstract (ProQuest: UMI Dissertations Publishing, 1991, 9128566), cited in Pedraza, "Genesis de la jácara," 85. 86. Pedraza, "Genesis de la jácara," 85. 87. Heuer, The Discourse of the Ruffian, iv. 88. Ibid. 89. Pedraza, "Genesis de la jácara," 80–81. 90. Mark Franko, Dance as Text: Ideologies of the Baroque Body (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 5. 91. Antonio Zoido Naranjo, "Prologue," in Rocío Plaza Orellana, El flamenco y los románticos: un viaje entre el mito y la realidad (Sevilla: Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, 1999), 20. 92. See Awam Amkpa, "Come Early Conversation for Boyzie Cekwana and Panaibra Canda's The Inkomati (dis)cord," lecture, New York Live Arts, September 25, 2013, posted athttp://www.newyorklivearts.org/blog/?p=3259 (accessed October 8, 2013). 93. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 193, 205. A different translation of this passage is quoted in Awam Amkpa, "Floating Signification: Carnivals and the Transgressive Performance of Hybridity," in Performing Hybridity, ed. May Joseph and Jennifer Natalya Fink (Minneapolis, London: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 103. 94. Ricardo de la Fuente Ballesteros, "Los gitanos en la tonadilla escénica," Revista de Folklore, vol. 4, no. 40 (1984): 126. 95. DeFrantz, "The Black Beat," 73. 96. Ralph Ellison, "Change the Joke and Slip the Yoke," Partisan Review, vol. 25 (Spring 1958): 212–22. 97. Théophile Gautier, "Fanny Elssler, October 19th, 1837," in The Romantic Ballet as Seen by Théophile Gautier, trans. and ed. Cyril W. Beaumont (1932; rpt. New York: Books for Libraries, 1980), 22; cited in Jeschke, Vettermann, and Haitzinger, Les Choses Espagnoles, 97.
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