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Familiarizing Food: Frozen Food Chains, Technology, and Consumer Trust, Norway 1940–1970

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 21; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/07409710.2013.764786

1542-3484

Terje Finstad,

Culinary Culture and Tourism

Abstract This article investigates the relationship between food chains and the production of consumer trust through cases drawn from the introduction of frozen fish fillets in Norway. Specifically, it will discuss how the frozen fish industry worked to create consumer trust in this new food product despite initial skepticism. Conventional ways of building trust such as quality control systems, branding, and marketing are investigated, but in addition to these mechanisms, the article discusses how the frozen fish industry utilized a range of more mundane technologies as trust-producing technologies. By investigating this effort, the article argues that technology is a valuable lens for understanding how consumers are familiarized with new foods. Notes 1. Warren Belasco and Roger Horowitz (eds.), Food Chains. From Farmyard to Shopping Cart (Philadephia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009). 2. For instance: Carmen Sarasúa, Peter Scholliers and Leen Van Molle (eds.), Land, Shops and Kitchens. Technology and the Food Chain in 20th-Century Europe, CORN Publication Series 7 (Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2005). A theoretical overview of food chains literature is provided in: Shane Hamilton, "Analyzing commodity chains: Linkages or restraints?," in Food Chains. From Farmyard to Shopping Cart, 16–25. 3. Ann Vileisis, Kitchen Literacy. How We Lost Knowledge of Where Food Comes From and Why We Need to Get it Back (Washington D.C.: Island Press, 2008); Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Dilemma. A Natural History of Four Meals (New York: Penguin Books, 2006; Marianne E. Lien and Brigitte Nerlich (eds.), The Politics of Food (Oxford: Berg, 2004); Lynn McIntyre, Patricia Thille and Krista Rondau, "Farmwomen's discourses on family food provisioning: Gender, healthism, and risk avoidance" in Food and Foodways 17, no. 2 (2009): 80–103. 4. Karin Zachmann, "Atoms for peace and radiation for safety — how to build trust in irradiated foods in Cold War Europe and beyond," History and Technology 27, no. 1 (2011). 5. See for instance: Karin Zachmann and Per Østby, "Food, technology and trust: An introduction," History and Technology 27, no. 1 (2011): 1–10; Uwe Spiekermann, "Redefining food: the standardization of products and production in Europe and the United States, 1880–1914," History and Technology 27, no. 1 (2011): 11–36; Gabriella M. Petrick, "Purity as life: H.J. Heinz, religious sentiment, and the beginning of the industrial diet," History and Technology 27, no. 1 (2011): 37–64; Stig Kvaal and Per Østby, "Sweet danger—negotiating trust in the Norwegian chocolate industry 1930–1990," History and Technology 27, no. 1 (2011): 91–111. 6. Similar arguments are also put forward in: Carolyn De la Peña and Benjamin N. Lawrance, "Introduction: Traversing the Local/Global and Food/Culture Divides," Food and Foodways 19, nos. 1–2 (2011): 1–10. While not specifically considering trust, Daniel Block has crafted a good example of how science was utilized to transform milk from a dangerous, yet healthy, feminine substance to a masculine and controllable substance. While he shows how science is utilized in this shift, he does not consider technology as more than infrastructure. See: Daniel Block, "Saving milk through masculinity: Public health officers and pure milk, 1880–1930," Food and Foodways 13, nos. 1–2 (2005): 115–134. 7. Some of the basic approaches to understanding technology as a sociocultural phenomenon are presented in: Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (eds.), The Social Construction of Technological Systems. New Directions in the History and Sociology of Technology (Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1989). 8. Several authors have written about parts in cold chains. Some examples are: Mikael Hård, Machines are Frozen Spirit. The Scientification of Refrigeration and Brewing in the 19th Century—A Weberian Interpretation (Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag, 1994); Shane Hamilton, "The economies and conveniences of modern-day living: Frozen food and mass marketing, 1945–1965," Business History Review 77, no. 1 (2003): 33–60; Shane Hamilton, "Cold capitalism. The political ecology of frozen concentrated orange juice," Agricultural History 77, no. 4 (2003): 557–581; Paul Josephson, "The ocean's hot dog. The development of the fish stick," Technology and Culture 49, no. 1 (2008): 41–61; Bjørn Petter Finstad, "Freezing Technology in the Norwegian Fish Processing Industry, 1930–1960," in Technological Change in the North Atlantic Fisheries, eds. Poul Holm and David J. Starky, bd. 3, Studia Atlantica (Esbjerg: Fiskeri- og Sjøfartsmuseet, 1999), 89–113; Bjørn Petter Finstad, "The frozen fillet: The fish that changed North Norway?," International Journal of Maritime History XVI, no. 1 (June 2004): 27–41. 9. Sociologist Adrian Franklin has investigated why there has been a decline in fish consumption in Britain and links this to larger socioeconomic factors. A bit on the side of his main argument, he points to the fact that there is a certain convergence between the consumption of frozen fish and the spread of home freezers. My goal is not to confirm this, but rather to investigate how technologies such as home freezers were utilized as tools for making frozen food minded consumers. See: Adrian Franklin, "An unpopular food? The distaste for fish and the decline of fish consumption in Britain," Food and Foodways 7, no. 4 (1997): 227–264. 10. Johs. A. Jacobsen, "Litt om frossenfisk-produksjon og omsetning gjennom 24 år," Frionorbladet (trade journal of Norwegian Frozen Fish) (July 1949): 10–17; Dag K. Andreassen, "Firkantet fisk : kjøle- og fryseteknologi blir fiskeindustri: ill.," Volund: Annual of the Norwegian Museum of Sciene and Technology (Oslo, 1996), p. 55–81. 11. Bjørn-Petter Finstad, "The Norwegian fisheries during the German occupation: Change and continuity," in Fish, War and Politics in the North Atlantic Fisheries, 1300–2003, eds. D.J. Starkey, F.R. Loomeijer, and R. Robinson (Den Haag: Institut voor Maritieme Historie, 2004), pp. 113–119. 12. The industrial committee, Frysning (New York: The Royal Norwegian Department of Provision and Rebuilding, 1945); Finstad, "Freezing Technology in the Norwegian Fish Processing Industry, 1930–1960"; Torvald Tande, Norsk Fiskeripolitikk. En Analyse av Fiskerinæringens Utvikling Siden 1920 (Oslo: Studieselskapet Samfunn og Næringsliv, 1957); Leiv Nordstrand, Fiskeridirektøren Melder. Fiskeridirektoratet 1900–1975. (Bergen, 2000). 13. Letter from Gustav Lorentzen on behalf of the department for construction and machine engineering to the director of fisheries, Sept. 1, 1949. Department of Fisheries Research Department, series 43.3, box 43.3/4, folder 82, the Regional State Archive in Bergen; Letter from the director of fisheries to the department of construction and machine engineering, June 4, 1949, Department of Fisheries Research Department, series 43.3, box 43.3/4, folder 82, the Regional State Archive in Bergen. 14. Anders Frihagen., Norsk Frossen Fisk til De Forente Stater: Beretning (Oslo: Department of Commerce, 1946); Frionor, Frionor 1946–1971 (Oslo, 1976); Frionor, Pionerinnsats Gjennom 50 År (Oslo, 1996). One notable exception is the Findus plant in Hammerfest. This was owned by the chocolate producer Freia, and sold its products under their own brand "Findus." Alf R. Jacobsen, Fra Brent Jord til Klondyke. Historien om Findus i Hammerfest og Norsk Fiskeripolitikks Elendighet (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1996); Alf R. Jacobsen and Per J. Hellevik, 100 År i Norsk Mat. Nestlé (Otta: Nestlé Norge, 1998). 15. Tande, Norsk Fiskeripolitikk. En Analyse av Fiskerinæringens Utvikling Siden 1920; Nils L.S. Jacobsen, "Innlandet," Norsk Fryserinæring (trade journal of the Norwegian freezing industry), no. 6 (July 1949): 1–2; Frionor, Frionor 1946–1971; Marketing and Consumption of Frozen Fish in OEEC Countries. Report presented at a meeting of experts on deep frozen foods held in Verona from the 6th to 12th October 1959 (Verona: European Productivity Agency of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, 1959). 16. Fredrik Grøn, "Om kostholdet i Norge. Fra omkring 1500-tallet og op til vår tid" (Det Norske Vitenskapsakademi, Oslo, 1941). For a history of fresh food consumption, see: Susanne Freidberg, Fresh. A Persishable History (London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009). 17. Tande, Norsk Fiskeripolitikk. En Analyse av Fiskerinæringens Utvikling Siden 1920. 18. Mark Kurlansky, Cod. A Biography of the Fish that Changed the World (London: Vintage, 1999). 19. Charles Robertson, "Kvalitetskravet i produksjon og omsetning," Frionorbladet, no. 2 (1949): 3–5; Max Schmid, "Sveits," Frionorbladet, no. 1 (August 1949): 4; Frihagen m.fl., Norsk Frossen Fisk Til De Forente Stater; Finstad, "The frozen fillet: The fish that changed North Norway?". 20. The point made by Carole Adams about the material and metaphorical transformation of animal flesh into meat, is very interesting in this connection. It seems to have played into the marketing of frozen fish at a somewhat later stage when it was marketed as "fish that even children could like". The point being that even people who did not like fish, would like frozen fish because it didn't have bones or smell like fish. As such, the de-animalization of fish could also serve to attract new consumers: Carol J. Adams, The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory (Continuum, 2010, Kindle edition). 21. The number might seem low, but it placed Norway at the top five in Europe at the time. This is explored in: Terje Finstad, "Cool alliances. Freezers, frozen fish and the shaping of industry-retail relations in Norway, 1950–1960," in Transformations of Retailing in Europe After 1945, eds. Ralph Jessen and Lydia Nembach-Langer (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2012). The introduction of self-service was also quite rapid. While there were only 30 self-service stores in 1950, the number had increased to 1,300 in 1957, meaning that 10% of Norwegian stores were self-serviced. "Vindusutstillinger," Frionorbladet, no. 1 (1952): 38; Per W. Bistrup, Markedsføring av Frossen Fisk på det Innenlandske Marked, (Bergen: Norwegian School of Economics, 1952); J. Trondsen, "Litt om Norsk Frossenfisk A/L's innenlandsavdeling," Frionorbladet, no. 1 (1951): 32; "Frionor innenlandsavdelingen," Frionorbladet, no. 2–3 (June 1951): 33–37; "Skal jeg velge FRIONOR eller…," Frionorbladet, no. 3 (1952): 43; "Frysediskenes plassering," Frionorbladet 4, no. 1 (1952): 39; "Regelmessige besøk—distribusjon av reklamemateriell," Frionorbladet, no. 1 (1952): 39; Kjøpmannskreditt A/L (Merchants Credit inc.), 5 År i Utviklingens Tegn (Oslo, 1958); Kjøpmannskreditt A/L, 10 År i Utviklingens Tegn (Oslo, 1963). 22. Gerd Benneche og Ruth Thomsen, eds., Husmorens Leksikon, bd. 1 (Stavanger: Åsmund Lærdals Forlag, 1947). 23. Thomas Hine, The Total Package. The Secret History and Hidden Meanings of Boxes, Bottles, Cans and Other Persuasive Containers (New York: Back Bay Books, 1995). 24. "Snobberi å ikke like frossenfisk," Verdens Gang (newspaper), July 11, 1951. 25. Ibid. 26. "Ikke håp om større matrasjoner," Verdens Gang, June 22, 1948. 27. "Snobberi å ikke like frossenfisk". In 1950 more than 50% of Norwegian grown women were registered as housewives; in 1960 the number was more than 55%. Some had part-time work, while others worked full time in the household. Anna Jorunn Avdem, Husmorparadiset (Oslo: Samlaget 2001); Anna Jorunn Avdem and Kari Melby, Oppe først og sist i seng. Husarbeid i Norge frå 1850 til i dag (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1985); Kari Melby, Kvinnelighetens strateger. Norges husmorforbund 1915–1940 og Norges lærerinneforbund 1912–1940 (Norwegian University of Science and Technology: PhD Thesis 1995). 28. "Eksportutvalget overtar ansvaret for innlandets ferskfisk-forsyning," Aftenposten (newspaper) (Oslo, December 15, 1948); "Fersk fisk året rundt, hvis fisken fryses, renset på pakkestedet," Aftenposten (Oslo, May 10, 1951); "Ferskfisktilførselen til Oslo opp til diskusjon på stort møte i morgen. Statsråd Carlsen: 'Forlang ikke ferskfisk hver dag'," Aftenposten (Oslo, November 5, 1951); "Skal det aldri bli orden på fiskeomsetningen?," Aftenposten (Oslo, May 17, 1953). 29. Christine Myrvang, Sissel Myklebust, og Brita Brenna, Temmet eller uhemmet: historiske perspektiver på konsum, kultur og dannelse (Oslo: Pax 2004); Furre, Norsk historie 1914–2000; Francis Sejersted, Sosialdemokratiets tidsalder. Norge og Sverige i det 20. århundre, Norge og Sverige gjennom 200 år 2 (Oslo: Pax Forlag, 2005). 30. Finstad, "Freezing Technology in the Norwegian Fish Processing Industry, 1930–1960"; Finstad, "The Norwegian fisheries during the German occupation". 31. "Fru Erken demonstrerer frossenfisk," Frionorbladet, no. 3 (September 1951): 38–39. 32. "Frossenfisk fra frysedisk," Husmorbladet (Housewives Magazine), May 16, 1951. 33. Britt-Marie Andersson, Dypfrysing (Oslo: J.W. Cappelens forlag, 1969). This means that every Norwegian ate about 5 kilos of frozen food a year. 34. Zachmann and Østby (2011). 35. Alexander Holst og Olav Notevarp, Om Frysning av Fisk og Fiskefilet. En Oversikt, Annual report about the Norwegian fisheries IV (Bergen: The Director General of Fisheries, 1932); Olav Notevarp og Eirik Heen, Virkningen av frysehastighet, lagringstemperatur og råstoffets friskhet på kvaliteten av frossen fisk (Bergen: The State Institute for Fisheries Research, 1938); Olav Notevarp, "Grunnlaget for konservering med kulde," i Foredrag ved kjøleteknisk kursus ved Statens Fiskeriforsøksstasjon 20–24 oktober 1941 (Bergen: The Director General of Fisheries, 1942), 38–64. 36. "P.M. Samling av kvalitets- og emballasjelovene for fisk og fiskeprodukter i én lov" (The Directorate of Fisheries, 1957); "Plan for Fiskeridirektoratets Kjemisk-Tekniske Forskningsinstitutt 'Fiskerilaboratoriet'" (The Director General of Fisheries, not dated); Olav Notevarp, Kvalitetsbedømmelse av rundfrossen torsk fra D/S Thorland, Ørnes, samt steinbitfilet fra B. Heide, Kristiansund, 1950, Department of Fisheries Research Department, Chemical-Technical Department box 125.15 Fresh fish control, the Regional State Archive in Bergen; State fresh fish control, "Smaksbedømmelse og analyse av frossen fisk og filet," December 21, 1949, Department of Fisheries Research Department, Chemical-Technical Department box 125.15 Fresh fish control, the Regional State Archive in Bergen. 37. Heen, "Norsk Frossenfisk A/L. Teknisk avdeling." 38. Zachmann, "Atoms for peace and radiation for safety—how to build trust in irradiated foods in Cold War Europe and beyond"; Zachmann and Østby, "Food, technology and trust: an introduction". 39. Frionor, Frionor 1946–1971. 40. For more on the concept of co-production, see: Oudshoorn and Pinch (eds.), How Users Matter (Cambridge MA.: MIT Press, 2005). 41. Hine, The Total Package. The Secret History and Hidden Meanings of Boxes, Bottles, Cans and Other Persuasive Containers; Martha Lampland and Susan Leigh Star, Standards and Their Stories: How Quantifying, Classifying, and Formalizing Practices Shape Everyday Life (New York: Cornell University Press, 2009); Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star, Sorting Things Out: Classification and its Consequences (Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press, 1999). 42. Fakta. Institute for market research, Husmoren og matvaredistribusjonen. Innkjøpsvaner og meninger. En undersøkelse gjennomført i Norge i Februar/Mars 1956 (Oslo: European Productivity Agency/Norwegian Productivity Agency, 1956). 43. "Frossenfisk fra frysedisk". 44. Per Borgersen, "Fisken over alle grenser," Frionorbladet, no. 1 (February 1950): 10–15. 45. For more on the relation between "objective" knowledge and trust, see for instance: Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers. The Pursuit of Objectvity in Science and Public Life (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995). 46. Dag O. Dvergsten, "Freiafisk og Freiaspråk," Norsk Fryserinæring, no. 4 (April 1952): 81; "Det norske språk fra uke til uke," Frionorbladet, no. 2 (1952): 43; "Språkekvilibrisme," Frionorbladet, no. 3 (1952): 42. 47. In comparison, only 2.6% of UK stores had introduced the self-service system. Actually, this meant that Norway was one of the countries in Europe with the highest density of self-service stores. For more on Norwegian retail, see: Espen Ekberg, "Consumer co-operatives and the transformation of modern food retailing. A comparative study of Norwegian and British consumer co-operatives 1950–2002" (PhD, UiO, 2008). 48. Detaljhandel i USA. Rapport fra en norsk studiegruppe (Oslo: Norwegian Productivity Agency, 1953); Svein Dalen, Selvbetjening. Et nødvendig ledd i handelens rasjonalisering, Kooperative småskrifter (Oslo: NKL, 1954); Sverre Nilsen, Selvbetjeningsbutikker og kjeder i USA. Beretning fra en studiereise i USA (Oslo: Norwegian Productivity Agency, 1955); White Paper, no. 87 (1958), "Recommendations on the rationalization of Norwegian retail, part III"; "Recommendations on the rationalization of the distribution of fish on the inland market, part II"; "Outline of the retail trade in Norway, part I". 49. Kjøpmannskreditt A/L, 5 år i utviklingens tegn; Kjøpmannskreditt A/L, 10 år i utviklingens tegn; Leif Throne-Holst, Fiske og fiskeindustri i Nord-Norge. (Oslo: Dreyers forlag, 1966). 50. Nilsen, Selvbetjeningsbutikker og kjeder i USA. Beretning fra en studiereise i USA (January-February 1953); Arne L. Dahl og Arnulf Johansen, "Om en reise til USA høsten 1952. 3. artikkel," Frionorbladet 4, no. 3 (1952): 34–40; Arne L. Dahl og Arnulf Johansen, "Om en reise til USA høsten 1952. 1. artikkel," Frionorbladet 4, no. 1 (1952): 29–36. 51. Nils W. Pettersen-Hagh, "Dypfrysing og markedsføring av fiskefileter, del 1," Norsk Fryserinæring, no. 1 (1959): 19–20; Nils W. Pettersen-Hagh, "Dypfrysing og markedsføring av fiskefileter, del 2," Norsk Fryserinæring, no. 2 (1959): 12–20. 52. "Regelmessige besøk—distribusjon av reklamemateriell"; "Hvilke krav stilles til produksjons—og distribusjonsleddene for å framstille dypfrossen fiskefilet av høy kvalitet?," Frionorbladet (June 1960): 6; "Avriming av frysediskene," Frionorbladet 4, no. 1 (1952): 39; "Frysediskenes plassering"; Aanonsen Fabrikker, "80% av salget på 'impuls'!," Alt om Kaldt (trade magazine), 1964. 53. "Folk i kyststrøk spiser mest frossenfisk. En velordnet frysedisk tegn på gode varer," Verdens Gang, 1964; Aanonsen Fabrikker, "Dypfrysingskontoret i aktivitet," Alt om Kaldt, 1959. 54. Franck Cochoy, "Calculation, qualculation, calculation: Shopping cart arithmetic, equipped cognition and the clustered consumer," Marketing theory 8, no. 1 (2008): 15–44. 55. Bowker and Star, Sorting things out; Lampland and Star, Standards and their stories: How quantifying, classifying, and formalizing practices shape everyday life. 56. "Norsk Kjøleteknisk Årsmøte 1961. 16–18. januar.," Norsk Fryserinæring, no. 1 (February 1961): 7–8; "Norsk Kjøleteknisk Årsmøte 1961. 16–18. januar.," Norsk Fryserinæring, no. 1 (February 1961): 7–8; Nils W. Pettersen-Hagh, "Litt om AFDOUS-koden og T-T-T programmet. Erfaringer fra USA.," Kjøleteknikk og Fryserinæring, no. 3 (June 1961): 68; Rolf Kirkvaag, "Behovet for faste temperaturregler i frysekjeden i Norge. Innlegg på Norsk Kjøleteknisk Forenings møte," Kjøleteknikk og Fryserinæring, no. 3 (June 1961): 69–72; The Directorate of Health in the Department of Social Affairs, "Frysedisker og frysebokser i utsalg for nærings—og nytelsesmidler," Norsk Fryserinæring, no. 3 (June 1960): 33. 57. Nils W. Pettersen-Hagh, Frysing og fryselagring i USA. Rapport fra studietur 48–23-p2–1-50004 arrangert og beskyttet av Foreign Operations Administration 15. april til 15. juni 1955 (Oslo: Norwegian Association of Freezing Plants/The Norwegian Productivity Agency, 1956); Nils W. Pettersen-Hagh, Dypfrysing i Sverige. Rapport fra en studiereise 3.-18. august 1957. (Oslo: The Norwegian Productivity Agency, 1958); Report from meeting regarding the Deep Freezing Office, August 28, 1958, S-1623 The Norwegian Productivity Agency. The National Archive; Statutes for the Deep Freezing Office, the Norwegian Productivity Agency. The National Archive; Gunnar Birch, Invitation to meeting, the Norwegian Productivity Agency. The National Archive; Egil Arneberg, "Report from a conference about deep freezing 24.02.1958," the Norwegian Productivity Agency. The National Archive. 58. "Kirkvaag om dypfryst fremtid på forbrukerdagene på Kongsberg. Utenbys foreninger har alt anmeldt sin ankomst," Verdens Gang, February 3, 1959; "Nyheter i frysedisken—risotto, fårikål og lutefisk. Og mer skal komme lover Kirkvaag," Verdens Gang, 1961; "Kirkvaag åpner dypfrysings-sentrum. Hvem som helst kan lære om FRYSE-MAT," Verdens Gang, 1962; "Vi får Europas første dypfrysingsskole med Kirkvaag som lærer!," Verdens Gang, October 6, 1965. 59. Bjørg Eliassen, Vi Dypfryser (Oslo: Johan Grundt Tanum Forlag, 1965). 60. Bergliot Qviller Werenskiold, "Kjøling og frysing av matvarer," Tidsskrift for husstell-lærerinner (Journal for Home Economics Teachers) 24, no. 10 (October 1942): 81–90; Frysing av matvarer (Oslo: State Office for Research in Home Economics, 1951); Frysing av matvarer (Oslo: State Office for Research in Home Economics, 1953); "Frysing av kjøtt," Hus og heim (Oslo: The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, December 3, 1951); Frysing av matvarer (Oslo: State Office for Research in Home Economics, 1961); Frysing av matvarer (Oslo: State Office for Research in Home Economics, 1962); Frysing av matvarer (Oslo: National Institute for Consumer Research, 1974); Frysing av matvarer (Oslo: National Institute for Consumer Research, 1981); Ingunn Børke, "Løst og fast om dypfrysing," Husmorbladet; Ellen Offergaard, "Lønner det seg å fryse matvarer selv?," Husmorbladet, June 7, 1956; "Hjemmefryser i slaktetid," Husmorbladet, November 21, 1959. 61. Lillemor Erken, Morgendagens mat. Isol dypfrysing (Oslo, 1957); Lillemor Erken, Morgendagens mat. Isol dypfrysing (Oslo, 1962); Ingunn Børke, Dypfrysing i hjemmet (Oslo, 1960); Ingunn Børke, Frysebok (Oslo, 1960); Britt Marie Anderson, Dypfrysing (Oslo, 1969); Ruth Blegen, Hjemmefrysing (Oslo, 1963); Lillemor Erken, Tidens Syltebok. Sylting-Safting, Hermetisering, Frysing (Oslo, 1950). 62. Frysing av matvarer. (Oslo: 1951, 1953, 1961, 1962, 1974, 1981). 63. Martin Bruegel, "How the French learned to eat canned food, 1809–1930s," in Warren Belasco and Philip Scranton (eds.), Food Nations. Selling Taste in Consumer Societies (New York: Routledge, 2002): 113–130 64. Jacobsen, "Innlandet"; Nils L.S. Jacobsen, "Litt om frysebokser," Norsk Fryserinæring 2, no. 1 (1950): 1–5. 65. Pettersen-Hagh (1956). 66. Marketing and consumption of frozen fish in OEEC countries. Report presented at a meeting of experts on deep frozen foods held in Verona from the 6th to 12th October 1959; Report on the meeting of experts on the marketing of deep-frozen products in Europe (European Productivity Agency of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, 1959). 67. This strategy is also explored by Ruth Schwartz Cowan, which shows how electricity plants promoted electrical refrigerators in order to turn households into electricity consumers. See: Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "How the refrigerator got its hum," in The Social Shaping of Technology, eds. Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman (Maidenhead: Open University Press, 1985). 68. Today, more than 90% of Norwegian households have a freezer. Statistics Norway: Statistiske analyser no. 28. Beholdning og anskaffelse av varige forbruksvarer i private husholdninger (Oslo: 1976); Statistics Norway: Statistikkbanken, Tabell: 05066: Husholdninger med utvalgte varige forbruksvarer, http://statbank.ssb.no/statistikkbanken 69. Pettersen-Hagh, Dypfrysing i Sverige. Rapport fra en studiereise (Oslo: Norwegian Productivity Agency, 1958); Pettersen-Hagh (1956); Marketing and consumption of frozen fish in OEEC countries (1959). 70. Rolf Kirkvaag, "Dypfrysingens fremtidsmuligheter" in Kjøleteknikk og fryserinæring no. 6 (Dec. 1962), 150–154. 71. Aanonsen Fabrikker, "Dypfrysingskontoret i aktivitet". 72. For more on the idea of technological determinism, see: Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx (eds.), Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (London, MIT-Press: 1994) 73. Andersson, (1969); Statistics Norway: Statistikkbanken. http://statbank.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/Default_FR.asp?PXSid=­0&nvl=­true­&­PLanguage=­0&tilside=selectvarval/define.asp&Tabellid=06376 74. This is a theme more explored in: Terje Finstad, Varme visjoner og frosne fremskritt. Om fryseteknologi i Norge, ca. 1920–1965 (Norwegian University of Science and Technology: PhD-Thesis, 2011). (On the introduction of freezing technologies and frozen food in Norway). 75. For instance: Bruegel (2002); Merete Lie and Knut H. Sørensen (eds.), Making Technology Our Own? Domesticating Technology Into Everyday Life (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1996).