Politics in command: Development studies and the rediscovery of social science
2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 10; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13563460500344542
ISSN1469-9923
Autores Tópico(s)Corruption and Economic Development
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Atul Kohli, ‘State, society and development’, in: Ira Katnelson & Helen V. Milner (eds), Political Science: The State of the Discipline (W. W. Norton & Co., 2002), p. 117. 2. Dani Rodrik, ‘Growth strategies’, in: Philippe Aghion & Steve Durlauf (eds), Handbook of Economic Growth (North-Holland, forthcoming). 3. Marvin Harris, Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches (Fontana, 1977), p. 8. Dudley Seers made essentially the same point in his classic paper, ‘The Birth, Life and Death of Development Economics’, Development and Change, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1979), pp. 707–19. He noted that ‘we really all know now that the economic aspects of the central issues of development cannot be studied or taught in isolation from other factors – social, political and cultural’. Ibid., p. 712. 4. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson & James A. Robinson, The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation, Working Paper 7771, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass., June 2000, available at http://www.nber.org/papers/w7771 5. By the ‘greats’ I mean of course Adam Smith at the end of the 18th century, Marx and Weber in the 19th and early twentieth century and the likes of Karl Polanyi, Joseph Schumpeter and Barrington Moore Jr. in the twentieth century. And there are others. 6. Anthony Shorrocks & Rolph van der Hoeven (eds), Growth, Inequality, and Poverty: Prospects for Pro-poor Economic Development (Oxford University Press, 2004). 7. A number of important contributions may be found in Joan M. Nelson et al., Fragile Coalitions: The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Transaction Books, 1989); Joan M. Nelson (ed.), Economic Crisis and Policy Choice (Princeton University Press, 1990); Merilee Grindle, Challenging the State: Crisis and Innovation in Africa and Latin America (Cambridge University Press, 1996); Merilee Grindle, In Quest of the Political: The Political Economy of Development Policy Making, Working Paper No. 17, Centre for International Development, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., June 1999. 8. New Political Economy, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1996), p. 6. 9. A. O. Hirschman, ‘The rise and decline of development economics’, in: his Essays in Trespassing: Economics to Politics and Beyond (Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 3–4. 10. Charles Kenny & David Williams, ‘What Do We Know About Economic Growth? Or, Why Don't We Know Very Much’, World Development, Vol. 29, No. 1 (2001), p. 3. 11. Dani Rodrik, ‘Getting institutions right’, unpublished paper, Harvard University, April 2004, available at http://ksghome. harvard.edu/~drodrik/papers.html 12. Despite the general opprobrium heaped on W. W. Rostow's theories, he was amongst the very first to recognise the primacy of politics in development. Discussing what he aeronautically referred to as take-off, he observed ‘many of the most profound economic changes are viewed as the consequence of non-economic human motivations and aspirations’, and ‘a decisive feature was often political’. Moreover, ‘governments must generally play an extremely important role in the process of building social overhead capital’ (he drew particular attention to the role of the state in the US in investing in transport and communications). And, in discussing the requirement that there be a determined development-oriented leadership, he stressed the role of the political process in the transition’. See W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth (Cambridge University Press, 1960), pp. 2, 7, 25 and 26. 13. Hirschman, ‘The rise and decline of development economics’; Seers, ‘The Birth, Life and Death of Development Economics’; David Apter, ‘The Passing of Development Studies – Over the Shoulder With a Backward Glance’, Government and Opposition, Vol. 15, No. 3/4 (1980), pp. 263–75; Deepak Lal, The Poverty of ‘Development Economics’ (Institute of Economic Affairs, 1983); John Toye, Dilemmas of Development (Blackwell, 1987); Peter Evans & John D. Stephens, ‘Studying Development since the Sixties: The Emergence of a New Comparative Political Economy’, Theory and Society, Vol. 17, No. 5 (1988), pp. 713–45; David B. Moore, ‘Development discourse as hegemony: towards an ideological history’, in: David B. Moore & Gerald J. Schmitz (eds), Debating Development Discourse (Macmillan, 1995), pp. 1–53; and Colin Leys, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory (James Currey, 1996). For an excellent new retrospective survey, see Gerald M. Meier, Biography of a Subject: The Evolution of Development Economics (Oxford University Press, 2005). 14. Geoffrey M. Hodgson, How Economics Forgot History (Routledge, 2001), p. xiii. 15. John Toye, ‘Changing perspectives in development economics’, in: Ha-Joon Chang (ed.), Rethinking Development Economics (Anthem Press, 2003), pp. 21–40. 16. R. A. Packenham, Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science (Princeton University Press, 1973). 17. David Morawetz, Twenty Five Years of Economic Development, 1950 to 1975 (World Bank, 1977), p. 12; and H. W. Arndt, ‘Economic Development: A Semantic History’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 29, No. 3 (1981), p. 457 and 466. 18. Roger E. Backhouse, The Penguin History of Economics (Penguin, 2002); and Gary J. Miller, ‘The Impact of Economics on Contemporary Political Science’, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 35, No. 3 (1997), pp. 1173–204. 19. Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (Oxford University Press, 1965); and Linda Weiss & John M. Hobson, States and Economic Development (Polity, 1995). 20. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1992 (Blackwell, 1992). 21. C. B. MacPherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford University Press, 1962). 22. Richard Hodges, Primitive and Peasant Markets (Blackwell, 1988). 23. Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States (Princeton University Press, 1988); and Bruce Berman, ‘Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism’, African Affairs, Vol. 97 (1998), pp. 243–61. 24. William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Nikki Funke & Hussein Solomon, The Shadow State in Africa: A Discussion, Development Policy Management Forum Occasional Paper No. 5, 2002, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, available at http://www.dpmf.org/Occasionalpapers/occasionalpaper5.pdf; Rosaleen Duffy, ‘Global governance, shadow states and the environment’, unpublished manuscript, available at http://members.lycos.co.uk/ocnewsletter/SGOC0103/duffy.pdf; Rosaleen Duffy, ‘Ecotourism, Corruption and State Politics in Belize’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 3 (2000), pp. 549–65; and Barbara Harriss-White, Informal Economic Order, Shadow States, Private Status States, States of Last Resort and Spinning States: A Speculative Discussion Based on South Asian Case Material, Working Paper No. 6, 1997, Queen Elizabeth House Working-Paper Series, available at http://www.qeh.ox.ac.uk/research/wpaction.html?jor_id = 6 25. M. G. Smith, ‘Some developments in the analytic framework of pluralism’, in: Leo Kuper & M. G. Smith (eds), Pluralism in Africa (University of California Press, 1971), pp. 415–58. 26. Michael P. Todaro & Stephen C. Smith, Economic Development, eighth edition (Addison Wesley, 2003), p. 9. 27. Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking Away the Ladder (Anthem, 2002); Richard Kozul-Wright, ‘The myth of Anglo-Saxon capitalism’, in: Ha-Joon Chang & Robert Rowthorn (eds), The Role of the State in Economic Change (Clarendon, 1996), pp. 81–113; Weiss & Hobson, States and Economic Development; and Alexander Gerschenkron, ‘Economic backwardness in historical perspective’, in: his Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Belknap Press, 1962), pp. 5–30. 28. A. F. Robertson, People and the State: An Anthropology of Planned Development (Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 7 and ff. Robertson points out that amongst the handful of countries which did not have plans were Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and the US. See also Tony Killick, ‘The Possibilities of Development Planning’, Oxford Economic Papers, No. 28 (1976), pp. 161–84. It should always be recalled how fashionable planning was in Europe (and especially the United Kingdom) after the Second World War. It was argued for and implemented by the Labour Government in the United Kingdom, and in particular pursued by Sir Stafford Cripps, Herbert Morrison, Ernest Bevin, Nye Bevan and many others. Many of the assumptions and arguments were easily carried over into aid and development policy in relation to the newly independent former colonies. 29. Albert Waterson, Development Planning: Lessons from Experience (Oxford University Press, 1966); and Mike Faber & Dudley Seers (eds), The Crisis in Planning, 2 vols (Chatto & Windus, 1972). 30. I have discussed this more fully in Adrian Leftwich, States of Development (Polity, 2000). 31. Paul A. Baran, The Political Economy of Growth (Monthly Review Press, 1967), p. 215. 32. André Gunder Frank, Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution (Monthly Review Press, 1969). 33. Aristide Zolberg, Creating Political Order: The Party States of West Africa (Rand McNally & Co., 1966). 34. Michael Bratton & Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1997). 35. Richard Sklar, ‘The Nature of Class Domination in Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4 (1979), pp. 531–52; Issa Shivji, Class Struggles in Tanzania (Heinemann, 1966); and Claude Meillassoux, ‘An Analysis of the Bureaucratic Process in Mali’, Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1970), pp. 97–110. 36. Hamza Alavi, ‘The State in Post-colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh’, New Left Review, No. 74, (1972), pp. 59–81. 37. Gunnar Myrdal, ‘The “soft state” in underdeveloped countries’, in: Paul Streeten (ed.), Unfashionable Economics: Essays in Honour of Lord Balogh (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970), pp. 227–43. 38. I generalise here to make the wider point. 39. ‘I was committed to African nationalism and independence’, wrote David Apter in his ‘backward glance’. See Apter, ‘The Passing of Development Studies’, p. 267. 40. S. P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (Yale University Press, 1969). 41. Another classic collection of the time shows these kinds of preoccupations. See Clifford Geertz (ed.), Old Societies and New States (Free Press, 1963). 42. Julius Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism (Uhuru Na Ujamaa): A Selection of Speeches and Writings, 1965–1967 (Oxford University Press, 1968). See the account of Nehru's speech in Frank Moraes, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography (Macmillan, 1957), pp. 1–2. 43. World Bank, World Development Report 1991 (Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 204–5. The annual average growth rate of gross national product (GNP) per capita between 1965 and 1989 in Sub-Saharan Africa had been 0.3 per cent; for Latin America it had been 1.9 per cent;.for South Asia it had been 1.8 per cent; and for East Asia it had been 5.2 per cent. Many African rates were negative, as were some in Latin America, such as Peru, El Salvador, Argentina and Venezuela. Although there had been strong growth from 1950 into the 1970s in Latin America, the decade that followed saw an economic crisis across much of the continent. See R. Ffrench-Davies, O. Mŭnoz & G. Palma, ‘The Latin American economies, 1950–1990', in: L. Bethell (ed.), Latin America: Economy and Society since 1930 (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 149–237. 44. Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation (Cambridge University Press, 1985); and Robert H. Jackson & Carl G. Rosberg, ‘The political economy of African personal rule’, in: David E. Apter & Carl G. Rosberg (eds), Political Development and the New Realism in Sub-Saharan Africa (University of Virginia Press, 1994), pp. 291–324. 45. Bethell, Latin America: Economy and Society since 1930; and Ruth Berins Collier & David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labour Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (University of Notre Dame Press, 2002). 46. Leftwich, States of Development, ch. 1. 47. Toye, Dilemmas of Development, p. 71. 48. Ibid., pp. 71–9. 49. Ibid.; and Christopher Colclough, ‘Structuralism versus neo-liberalism: an introduction’, in: Christopher Colclough & James Manor (eds), States or Markets? Neo-liberalism and the Development Debate (Clarendon, 1996), pp. 1–25. 50. Lal, The Poverty of ‘Development Economics’, p. 106. 51. Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan & John Toye, Aid and Power: The World Bank and Policy-based Lending, 2 vols (Routledge, 1991). 52. John Williamson, ‘What Washington means by policy reform’, in: John Williamson (ed.), Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened? (Institute of International Economics, 1990), pp. 7–38; John Williamson, ‘The Washington Consensus revisited’, in: Louis Emmerij (ed.), Economic and Social Development into the XXI Century (InterAmerican Bank, 1997), pp. 48–61; and John Williamson, ‘Did the Washingon Consensus fail?’, Outline of Remarks at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, available at http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/williamson1102.htm. Williamson's point, quite simply, was that he had only sought to summarise 10 key areas of policy reform which some (but not all) Latin American countries should be undertaking in 1989 and which would command a consensus in the institutions of Washington during the presidency of George Bush. 53. J. Pincus & Nguyen Thang, Country Study: Vietnam, Centre for Development Policy and Research, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, February 2004. 54. Republic of South Africa, Department of Provincial and Local Government, Strategic Plan, 2005–2010, (DPLG, 2004), available at: http://www.dplg.gov.za. See Constitution of India at http://mchacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend74.htm 55. World Bank, World Development Report 1991, p. 9. 56. New Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 2 (2004). 57. Among the more comprehensive, compelling or controversial have been Paul Hirst & Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question: The International Economy and the Possibilities of Governance (Polity, 1996); Linda Weiss, The Myth of the Powerless State: Governing the Economy in a Global Era (Polity, 1998); David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt & Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Polity, 1999); Joseph Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents (Penguin, 2002); and World Bank, Globalization, Growth and Poverty (Oxford University Press, 2003). 58. Williamson, ‘The Washington Consensus revisited’, p. 58. 59. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 60. 60. See Article 9, Paragraph 3 of the Cotonou Agreement, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/body/cotonou/agreement/agr06_en.htm 61. Goran Hyden, Julius Court & Kenneth Mease, Making Sense of Governance (Lynne Rienner, 2004), p. 16. 62. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), Re-conceptualising Governance, Discussion Paper 2, (UNDP, 1997); OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development), The Final Report of the DAC Ad Hoc Working Group on Participatory Development and Good Government; (OECD, 1997); and Douglas Hurd, ‘Promoting Good Government’, Crossbow (Autumn 1990), pp. 4–5. For a fuller account of these developments, see Adrian Leftwich, States of Development, chs 5 and 6. 63. See http://www.wfd.org/ 64. Gordon Crawford, ‘Foreign Aid and Political Conditionality: Issue of Effectiveness and Consistency’, Democratization, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1997), pp. 69–108. 65. Milton Friedman & Rose Friedman, Free To Choose (Penguin, 1980). 66. Crawford Young, ‘Democratization in Africa: the contradictions of a political imperative’, in: Jennifer A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), pp. 230–50. 67. Leftwich, States of Development, p. 121; see also D. Williams & T. Young, ‘Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory’, Political Studies, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1994), pp. 84–100. 68. New York Times, 12 July 1990. 69. Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (University of Oklahoma Press, 1991). 70. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History’, National Interest, Summer 1989, pp. 3–18; and Michael W. Doyle, ‘Kant, Liberal Legacies and Foreign Affairs’, Philosophy and Public Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 3 (1983), pp. 205–35. 71. For instance, see Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Towards Consolidation (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); and Adam Przeworski et al., Sustainable Democracy (Cambridge University Press, 1995) for good surveys of the literature and issues of the 1990s. 72. See the excellent survey by Mick Moore, Sheila Stewart & Ann Hudock, Institution Building as a Development Assistance Method: A Review of Literature and Ideas (Swedish International Development Authority, 1995). 73. World Bank, Governance: The World Bank's Experience (World Bank, 1994), p. xiv. 74. World Bank, The African Capacity Building Initiative (World Bank, 1991), p. 5. 75. World Bank, Reforming Public Institutions and Strengthening Governance (World Bank, 2000), p. xiii. 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid., p. 15. 78. The seminal works by North are Douglass North & Robert Thomas, The Rise of the Western World (Cambridge University Press, 1973); Douglass North, Structure and Change in Economic History (W. W. Norton, 1981); Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge University Press, 1990); and a host of papers. In particular, see his ‘Institutions and Economic Growth: An Historical Introduction’, World Development, Vol. 17. No. 9 (1989), pp. 1319–32. 79. Hodgson, How Economics Forgot History. 80. James G. March & Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (Free Press, 1989); see also the good surveys in B. Guy Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science (Continuum Press, 1999); and P. Hall & C. R. Taylor, ‘Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms’, Political Studies, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1996), pp. 936–57. 81. See Rodrik's many papers on his website and, in particular, Dani Rodrik (ed.), In Search of Prosperity (Princeton University Press, 2003). The various papers in that volume provide a rich set of references to studies and work done by economists, mainly in the US, on the role of institutions in development. See Acemoglu et al., The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development. See also the important earlier collection of papers in John Harriss, Janet Hunter & Colin M. Lewis (eds), The New Institutional Economics and Third World Development (Routledge, 1995), in which there is a very interesting paper by Robert H. Bates exploring the origins and sources of the new institutionalism and its implications for development theory. See also Christopher Clague (ed.), Institutions and Economic Development: Growth and Governance in Less-Developed and Post-Socialist Countries (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997). One of the seminal papers was R. E. Hall & C. I. Jones, ‘Why do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker than Others?’, Quarterly Journal o.f Economics, Vol. 114, No. 1 (1999), pp. 83–116, which drew attention to the centrality of institutions in determining output and growth. 82. World Bank, World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World (Oxford University Press, 1947), chs 5 and 6. 83. Peter Evans & James E. Rauch, ‘Bureaucracy and Growth: A Cross-National Analysis of the Effects of “Weberian” State Structures on Economic Growth’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 64, No. 5 (1999), pp. 748–65; and James E. Rauch & Peter B. Evans, ‘Bureaucratic Structure and Bureaucratic Performance in Less Developed Countries’, Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 75, No. 1 (2000), pp. 49–71. 84. Nauro F. Campos & Jeffrey B. Nugent, ‘Development Performance and the Institutions of Governance: Evidence from East Asia and Latin America’, World Development, Vol. 27, No. 3 (1999), pp. 439–52. 85. Nelson et al., Fragile Coalitions: The Politics of Economic Adjustment; Nelson, Economic Crisis and Policy Choice; Grindle, Challenging the State; and Grindle, In Quest of the Political. 86. ‘Postcolonial – or tricontinental – critique is united by a common political and moral consensus towards the history and legacy of western colonialism … The assumption of postcolonial studies is that many of the wrongs, if not crimes, against humanity are a product of the economic dominance of the north over the south’, observes Robert J. C. Young in Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction (Blackwell, 2001), pp. 5–6. 87. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement for a good survey of the range of movements, causes and themes under the umbrella of anti-globalisation. 88. J. Crush, ‘Imagining development’ in: J. Crush (ed.), Power of Development (Routledge, 1995), pp. 1–23; Arturo Escobar, ‘Reflections on “Development”: Grassroots Approaches and Alternative Politics in the Third World’, Future, Vol. 24, No. 5 (1992), pp. 411–36; Arturo Escobar, ‘Imagining a Post-Development Era’ in: Crush, Power of Development, pp. 211–27; Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton University Press, 1995); and W. Sachs, ‘The Archaeology of The Development Idea’, Interculture, Vol. XXIII, No. 4 (1990), pp. 6–25. 89. Crush, ‘Imagining development’, p. 11. 90. Robin Cohen & Shirin Rai (eds), Global Social Movements (Athlone Press, 2000); and Dong-Sook S. Gills, ‘The political economy of globalization and grass roots movements’, in: Anthony McGrew & Nana Poku (eds), Globalization, Development and Human Security (Polity, forthcoming). 91. Editorial, New Political Economy, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1996), p. 10. 92. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (1776) (Routledge, 1892), Book IV, p. 488. 93. Karl Marx & F. Engels, The German Ideology (Lawrence & Wishart, 1965), p. 76. 94. Anthony McGrew, ‘Politics as distorted global politics’, in: Adrian Leftwich (ed.), What is Politics? (Polity, 2004), p. 166. 95. See also Jeffrey Haynes, Comparative Politics in a Globalizing World (Polity, 2005). 96. Susan Strange, ‘International Economics and International Relations: A Case of Mutual Neglect’, International Affairs, Vol. 46, No. 2 (1970), pp. 304–15. For a good survey of these developments and concerns, see Anthony Payne, ‘Rethinking development inside International Political Economy’, in: Anthony Payne (ed.), The New Regional Politics of Development (Palgrave, 2004), pp. 1–28. 97. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, second edition (University of Chicago Press, 1970). 98. Williamson, ‘Did the Washington Consensus fail?’. 99. Commission for Africa, Our Common Interest: Report of the Commission for Africa (Commission for Africa, 2005). 100. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2004 (Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 186–7. 101. International Labour Office, Global Employment Trends Briefing (International Labour Office, 2005), pp. 7–8. 102. David Dollar, Globalization, Poverty and Inequality since 1980, World Bank Policy Research Paper 3333, World Bank, 2004, p. 18; and World Bank, Globalization, Growth and Poverty (Oxford University Press, 2002). 103. Robert Hunter Wade, ‘On the Causes of Increasing World Poverty and Inequality, or Why the Matthew Effect Prevails’, New Political Economy, Vol. 9, No. 2 (2004), pp. 163–88. See also the debate between Robert Wade and Martin Wolf in their ‘Are global poverty and inequality getting worse?’, in: David Held & Anthony McGrew (eds), The Global Transformations Reader, second edition (Polity, 2003), pp. 440–6. 104. Arne Bigsten & Jörgen Levin, ‘Growth, income distribution and poverty: a review’, in: Shorrocks & van der Hoeven, Growth, Inequality, and Poverty, pp. 251–76. 105. Martin Ravallion & Shaohua Chen, China's (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty, World Bank Policy Research Paper 3408, World Bank, 2004; Jan Vandemoortele, ‘Ending World Poverty: Is the Debate Settled?’, One Pager, No. 12 (United Nations Development Programme, International Poverty Centre, 2005); and Alejandro Grinspun, ‘Chinese Boxes: What Happened to Poverty’, One Pager, No. 13 (United Nations Development Programme, International Poverty Centre, 2005). The problems of defining poverty levels and obtaining and interpreting data is illustrated in a claim in a recent report that poverty in China fell from 29.6 per cent in 1990 to 14.94 per cent in 2000. See World Bank (Operationalising Pro-poor Growth Research Program), Pro-poor Growth in the 90s: Lessons and Insights from 14 Countries (World Bank, 2005), p. 16. 106. World Bank, World Development Report 2006, Draft (World Bank, 2005), p. 31. 107. World Bank, Inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean (World Bank, 2003), p. 3. 108. SAPRIN (Structural Adjustment Participatory Review International Network), The Policy Roots of Economic Crisis and Poverty (SAPRIN, 2002). 109. United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 55/2, September 2000. There were eight goals: to halve world poverty by 2015; to achieve universal primary education; to promote gender equality; to reduce infant mortality; to enhance maternal health; to combat AIDS; to work for environmental sustainability; and to develop a global partnership for development. 110. David Dollar & Jakob Svensson, ‘What Explains the Success or Failure of Structural Adjustment Programmes?’, The Economic Journal, Vol. 110, Issue 466 (2000), pp. 895–6. 111. Anna Ivanova, Wolfgang Mayer, Alex Mourmouras & George Anayiotos, What Determines the Implementation of IMF-Supported Programs?, IMF Working Paper, WP/03/8, International Monetary Fund, 2003, p. 39. 112. Kenny & Williams, ‘What Do We Know About Economic Growth?’, p. 1. This echoed very much the view put forward by Ronald Coase, a decade before, that much of contemporary economics studied ‘a system which lives in the minds of economists, but not on earth’. Ronald Coase, ‘The Institutional Structure of Production’, American Economic Review, Vol. 82, No. 4 (1992), p. 714. 113. Kenny & Williams, ‘What Do We Know About Economic Growth’, p. 1. 114. Ibid., p. 16. 115. Ronald Coase, ‘The Nature of the Firm’, Economica, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1937), pp. 386–405, and ‘The Problem of Social Cost’, Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1960), pp. 1–44; and Kenneth L. Sokoloff & Stanley L. Engerman, ‘History Lessons: Institutions, Factor Endowments, and Paths of Development in the New World’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 14, No. 3 (2000), pp. 217–32. 116. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, p. 107. 117. Dani Rodrik, Arvind Subramanian & Francesco Trebbi, Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions Over Geography and Integration in Economic Development, CID Working Paper 97, Center for International Development, Harvard University, October 2002. 118. Ibid., p. 3. 119. World Bank, Reforming Public Institutions and Strengthening Governance, pp. xii, 2. 120. Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States; and Robert H. Bates, Prosperity and Violence: The Political Economy of Development (W. W. Norton, 2001). 121. Janine Aron, ‘Growth and Institutions: A Review of the Evidence’, The World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 15, No. 1 (2000), pp. 99–135. 122. World Bank, World Development Report 2002: Building Institutions for Markets (Oxford University Press, 2002). 123. Ibid.; and Dani Rodrik, ‘What do we learn from country narratives?’, in: Rodrik, In Search of Prosperity, pp. 1–19. See also the detailed survey of the literature by Johannes Jütting, Institutions and Development: A Critical Review, Technical Paper No. 210, OECD Development Center (OECD, 2003); Aron, ‘Growth and Institutions’, pp. 128–30; and Rodrik et al., Institutions Rule. 124. Leftwich, States of Development, p. 121. 125. Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay & Pablo Zoido-Lobatón, Governance Matters, Policy Research Working Paper 2196, World Bank Institute, 1999; and related papers at the Governance website of the Bank. 126. Goran Hyden, Julius Court & Kenneth Mease, Making Sense of Governance (Lynne Rienner, 2004), p. 16. My emphasis. 127. Ibid., pp. 7–33. 128. Dani Rodrik, ‘Growth strategies’, in: Aghion & Durlauf, Handbook of Economic Growth. 129. North-South: A Programme For Survival, Report of the Independent Commission on International Development Issues under the Chairmanship of Willy Brandt (Pan, 1980); and Common Crisis: North-South: Cooperation for World Recovery (Pan, 1983). 130. See the work and publications of the Centre for the Future State, at the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, led by Mick Moore, available at: http://www.ids.ac.uk/gdr/cfs/; and also that of the Crisis State Research Centre, at the London School of Economics, also funded by DfID, and led by James Putzel, available at: http://www.crisisstates.com. See in particular, The Centre for the Future State, Signposts to More Effective States (Institute for Development Studies, 2005). 131. Christopher Clague, ‘Introduction’, in: Clague, Institutions and Economic Development, p. 2. Though political economists from Smith onwards have always focused on the relations between economics and politics, as New Political Economy exemplifies, the notion that economics would or should include the ‘political’, and that economic principle and analysis could apply to political phenomena, was one which is associated with contemporary rational and public choice theory, and its disciplinary imperialism, best and most mischievously exp
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