Illustrating the printed Middle English verse romances, c .1500– c .1535
2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 27; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/02666286.2010.486266
ISSN1943-2178
Autores Tópico(s)Medieval Literature and History
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements This article is in part the result of the research project on the printed history of Middle English romances funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education (ref. FFI2008-02165), whose support is herewith gratefully acknowledged. But this research could not have been completed without the kind and generous assistance of many librarians, in particular Alan Coates (Bodleian Library), Virginia Cole (Cornell University Library), and Marta Riera (Biblioteca de Catalunya). I thank Elizabeth Archibald, for her useful comments on a previous draft of this article, and Jennifer Fellows, for sharing with me her materials and ideas on the illustration of Bevis of Hampton. Finally, I also wish to thank the Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève (Paris), Bibliothèque du Ch∩teau de Chantilly, The British Library, and The Pierpont Morgan Library for permission to reproduce images from books in their possession. Notes 1 – See Julia Boffey and A. S. G. Edwards, ‘Literary texts’, in The Cambridge History of the Book in Britain, vol. 3, 1400–1557, eds Lotte Hellinga and J.B. Trapp (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 555–75, 561–63. 2 – For a recent assessment of the genre's popularity see the editors’ ‘Introduction’, in A Companion to Medieval Popular Romance, eds Raluca L. Radulescu and Cory J. Rushton (Cambridge: Brewer, 2009), pp. 1–8. 3 – ‘Caxton, de Worde, and the publication of romance in late medieval England’, The Library, 6th ser., 14 (1992), pp. 283–98, 290. 4 – For instance, Wynkyn de Worde tried to regularize the spelling, as suggested in Mark Aronoff, ‘The orthographic system of an early English printer: Wynkyn de Worde’, Folia Linguistica Historica, 8/1–2 (1989), pp. 65–97. For the price of printed books in this period, see H.S. Bennett, ‘Notes on English retail book-prices, 1480–1560’, The Library, 5th ser., 5 (1950), pp. 172–8. The production of printed verse romances after the death of Wynkyn de Worde in 1534/35 was mainly derivative both textually and pictorially; this is the reason why they are excluded from this study. See further in Jordi Sánchez-Martí, ‘The printed history of the Middle English verse romances’, Modern Philology, 107 (2009), pp. 1–31, 12–18. 5 – For an account of the reasons for the historical neglect of English woodcuts, see James A. Knapp, Illustrating the Past in Early Modern England: The Representation of History in Printed Books (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), pp. 35–53. For an overview of scholarly attitudes prejudiced against the English romances, see Nicola McDonald, ‘A polemical introduction’, in Pulp Fictions of Medieval England: Essays in Popular Romance, ed. Nicola McDonald (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), pp. 1–21. 6 – H.S. Bennett, English Books and Readers, 1475–1557, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 149. For a detailed discussion of the printed afterlife of the English metrical romances, see Sánchez-Martí, ‘The printed history of the Middle English verse romances’. 7 – As Knapp argues, ‘[b]ecause the present understanding of aesthetic production is indebted to developments in the modern era, it is difficult to imagine a time when modern notions of the aesthetic did not prevail’ (Illustrating the Past, p. 48). Hence, I prefer not to project our aesthetic prejudices, but instead to confirm that the early woodcut illustrations were accepted and tolerated by the public. 8 – In editions of metrical romances published before 1535 by printers other than Pynson and De Worde, illustration, when there is any, is limited to the title page. The editions of Sir Isumbras by John Skot (STC 14280.5) and by Peter Treveris (STC 14280.7), both published c.1530, illustrate their title page with a reversed copy of Hod. 1121, while John Mitchell chose an adaptation of Hod. 1122 for his edition of Sir Lamwell (STC 15187; 1530–32?). In this article, BMC stands for Catalogue of Books Printed in the xvth Century now in the British Library, Part xi: England (’t Goy-Houten: Hes & de Graaf, 2007); FB refers to Andrew Pettegree, Malcolm Walsby and Alexander S. Wilkinson, French Vernacular Books: Books Published in the French Language before 1601 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 2 vols; ‘Hod.’ followed by a number identifies the woodcut in Edward Hodnett, English Woodcuts 1480–1535 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973); STC refers to A.W. Pollard and G.R. Redgrave, A Short-Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, & Ireland, And of English Books Printed Abroad, 1475–1640, rev. W. A. Jackson, F.S. Ferguson and Katherine F. Pantzer, 2nd ed. (London: Bibliographical Society, 1976–91), 3 vols. 9 – Pynson's edition (STC 12540) is dated to 1497–99, and De Worde's (STC 12541) to 1497–98. For a description, see respectively BMC, pp. 288–9, and Alan Coates, A Catalogue of Books Printed in the Fifteenth Century now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 1219. When they differ, I always prefer the dates in the BMC to those in the STC. 10 – See Peter W.M. Blayney, The Stationers’ Company before the Charter, 1403–1557 (London: The Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspapermakers, 2003), p. 23. For biographical information on Pynson, see Pamela Neville-Sington, ‘Pynson, Richard (c.1449–1529/30)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, eds H.C.G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), online ed. 11 – For a description, see Jennifer Fellows, ‘The Middle English and Renaissance Bevis: a textual survey’, in Sir Bevis of Hampton in Literary Tradition, eds Jennifer Fellows and Ivana Djordjević (Cambridge: Brewer, 2008), pp. 80–113, 110. This romance had been previously printed by De Worde in 1499–1500 (STC 1987; I follow the date of the BMC) and c.1500 (STC 1987.5). For a discussion of the printed tradition of Bevis, see Fellows, ‘Bevis: a textual survey’, pp. 96–103. 12 – The text of this copy is designated O in the edition by Eugen Kölbing, The Romance of Sir Beues of Hamtoun, Early English Text Society, Extra Series 46, 48, 65 (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1885–94). I follow Kölbing's edition and adopt his line numbers. Since signatures in Pynson's printing are often erroneous, the ones I provide are reconstructed from the statement of collation established for the copy in the Bodleian Library. Note, however, that romance scholars have referred to this edition either with folio numbers (cf. Jennifer Fellows, ‘Bevis Redivivus: the printed editions of Sir Bevis of Hampton’, in Romance Reading on the Book: Essays in Medieval Narrative Presented to Maldwyn Mills, eds Jennifer Fellows, Rosalind Field, Gillian Rogers, and Judith Weiss [Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1996], pp. 250–68) or with the erroneous signatures (cf. Fellows, ‘Bevis: a textual survey’, p. 99 n. 94). For plot summaries of the romances discussed in this article, see J. Burke Severs, A Manual of the Writings in Middle English, 1050–1500 (New Haven: Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1967), vol. 1. 13 – For a facsimile, see Guy of Warwick: Icon and Ancestor, eds Alison Wiggins and Rosalind Field (Cambridge: Brewer, 2007), pl. 13 (top). It is printed on sig. B3r (missigned B2). 14 – For a facsimile, see John Ashton, Romances of Chivalry, Told and Illustrated in Fac-simile (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1887), p. 151. 15 – For a facsimile, see Ashton, Romances of Chivalry, p. 152; Guy of Warwick: Icon and Ancestor, pl. 12; Siân Echard, Printing the Middle Ages (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), p. 70, figure 33 (left). 16 – I follow Ruth Samson Luborsky, ‘Connections and disconnections between images and texts: the case of secular Tudor book illustration’, Word and Image, 3 (1987), pp. 74–85, in describing book illustration with the terms general, generic and typical to mean ‘that the image is appropriate to but not specific to the whole text or its parts’, and direct to mean ‘that the image depicts a particular textual reference’ (p. 74). 17 – The text of this marriage is printed by Kölbing on p. 78 of his edition without consecutive line numbers. For a facsimile of the whole sig. D6r of Pynson's Bevis, see Echard, Printing the Middle Ages, p. 79, figure 36 (left); see also Hodnett, English Woodcuts, figure 159. 18 – For instance, Pynson had used previously in his career Hod. 1623 (cf. n. 17). 19 – Before Hod. 1939 (see figure 4) comes a descriptive rubric directly related with the woodcut: ‘Howe Beuys rose in a mornynge and went to the forest and slewe the wylde bore’ (sig. B5v); but, as there is a correlation between the image and the text, this rubric becomes somewhat repetitious for a caption. Previously on sig. A6r there is another rubric that does not describe Hod. 1936 on sig. A6v (see figure 2), but instead serves as a chapter heading proper. 20 – ‘Of Dragons and Saracens: Guy and Bevis in early print illustration’, in Guy of Warwick: Icon and Ancestor, pp. 154–68, 161. See also Jennifer Fellows, ‘Printed romance in the sixteenth century’, in A Companion to Medieval Popular Romance, 67–78, 73–4. 21 – See BMC, p. 30. 22 – As Martha Driver states, ‘[a] broken border in a woodcut usually indicates wearing of the woodblock and is a fairly reliable sign of previous use (though how much previous use is debatable)’ (‘Illustration in early English books: methods and problems’, Books at Brown, 33 [1986], pp. 1–49, 28–32). In any event, Pynson's illustrator would have adapted both the content and the style of these originals to the specific narrative demands of his text. In the case of Hod. 1934 (see figure 1), one may argue that the style is indebted to French models. Both the black background and the figure of a dead soldier are reminiscent of one of the illustrations in Bonhomme's edition of L'istoire de la destruction de Troye la Grant (Paris, 1484); for a reproduction, see E. Stengel's autographic facsimile of this edition (Marburg: N.G. Elwertsche, 1883), p. 350; the structural composition of the cut on p. 313 of that edition is also similar. For Pynson's access to and use of French woodcuts, see Julia Boffey, ‘Richard Pynson's Book of Fame and The Letter of Dido’, Viator, 19 (1988), pp. 339–53; A.S.G. Edwards, ‘Continental influences on London printing and reading in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries’, in London and Europe in the Late Middle Ages, eds Julia Boffey and Pamela King (London: Queen Mary and Westfield College, 1995), pp. 229–56, 235–36; and Alexandra Gillespie, Print Culture and the Medieval Author: Chaucer, Lydgate, and Their Books 1473–1557 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 101. Notice also that one of the generic woodcuts, Hod. 1488 (see figure 6), is probably also modeled following a French design that illustrates Denis Meslier's edition of Chroniques de France abrégées (Paris, c.1490; FB 13129; see figure 7). The same woodcut occurs in Denis Meslier's edition of Paris et Vienne (Paris, c.1491), reproduced in Manfred von Arnim, Katalog der Bibliothek Otto Schäfer, Schweinfurt (Stuttgart: E. Hauswedell, 1984), vol. 1, p. 533 no. 262; Arnim suggests, ‘Enger Textbezug und gute Erhaltung der Stöcke lassen vermuten, daß sie für unseren Druck geschnitten wurden’ (vol. 1, pp. 531–2; ‘Close reference to the text and good preservation of the borders allow us to assume that they were cut for our printing’). On Denis Meslier, see A. Claudin, Histoire de l'imprimerie en France au xve et au xvie siècle (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1904), vol. 2, pp. 105–16. 23 – For information on De Worde, see N.F. Blake, ‘Worde, Wynkyn de (d. 1534/5)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; and James Moran, Wynkyn de Worde: Father of Fleet Street, with a chronological bibliography compiled by Lotte Hellinga and Mary Erler (London: British Library, 2003). For a study of De Worde's illustration practices, see Martha W. Driver, ‘The Illustrated de Worde: an overview’, Studies in Iconography, 17 (1996), pp. 349–403. Driver estimates ‘de Worde's production of illustrated books (including those with one woodcut, ornamental borders, and/or banderoles) at close to five hundred separate editions’ (p. 400 n. 29), out of a total output of ‘between nine hundred and one thousand separate editions’ (p. 396 n. 3). It is true that De Worde inherited the 381 woodcuts that illustrated Caxton's books, but ‘during the more than 40 years of his further activity added over 1,000 cuts’, as indicated by Lotte Hellinga, ‘Printing’, in The Cambridge History of the Book in Britain, vol. 3, 1400–1557, pp. 65–108, 102. His publications include a total of nineteen editions of twelve separate romance titles. 24 – Two copies are extant: Oxford, Bodleian Library, Coynes 734, and Manchester, John Rylands's Library, Deansgate 15843. Wynkyn de Worde issued a second edition in 1528 (STC 21008), but my discussion focuses on the first edition, referring to the second only when they depart. The text of De Worde's printing is recorded by Karl Brunner in his critical edition, Der mittelenglische Versroman über Richard Löwenherz (Vienna: W. Braumüller, 1913). I follow Brunner's line numbers and punctuation. 25 – For a facsimile, see Hodnett, English Woodcuts, figure 103. 26 – The combination of label-title and woodcut is discussed by Margaret M. Smith, The Title-Page: Its Early Development, 1460–1510 (London: British Library, 2000), ch. 5. 27 – In the same context, the second edition of this romance (STC 21008; 1528) uses Hod. 1109, which depicts all the figures embarked and sailing. 28 – For the editions where these woodcuts occur, see Hodnett, English Woodcuts, under the corresponding item number. 29 – For information on the printer, see Claudin, Histoire de l'imprimerie en France, vol. 3, pp. 29–112. 30 – For a facsimile, see André Blum, Les origines du livre à gravure du xve siècle (Paris: G. Van Oest, 1928), pl. XVI, figure 35. On Pierre Le Rouge, see Claudin, Histoire de l'imprimerie en France, vol. 1, pp. 455–86; and Henri Monceaux, Les Le Rouge de Chablis, calligraphes, et miniaturistes, graveurs et imprimeurs (Paris: Claudin, 1896), vol. 1, pp. 121–308. 31 – On Jehan Bonhomme, see Claudin, Histoire de l'imprimerie en France, vol. 1, pp. 182–98. Besides, Hod. 1109, which appears only in the second edition of Richard Coeur de Lion, is also similar to a French design in Denis Meslier's Ystoire du très vaillant et noble chevalier Paris et de la belle Vienne (Paris, about 1491 and 1500; not in FB). For a facsimile, see Blum, Les origines du livre à gravure, pl. XXV, figure 60. For Wynkyn de Worde's use of continental cuts, particularly French, see Martha W. Driver, The Image in Print: Book Illustration in Late Medieval England and its Sources (London: British Library, 2004), ch. 2, and BMC, p. 30. The importation of printed French books in this period is well attested; see Elizabeth Armstrong, ‘English purchases of printed books from the continent 1465–1526’, English Historical Review, 94 (1979), pp. 268–90, and Lotte Hellinga, ‘Importation of books printed on the continent into England and Scotland before c. 1520’, in Printing the Written Word: The Social History of Books, circa 1450–1520, ed. Sandra Hindman (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 205–24. See also Edwards, ‘Continental influences on London printing’. 32 – For a reproduction, see E. Stengel's autographic facsimile, p. 161. 33 – All the woodcuts in this edition are reproduced in the prefatory material of Sire Degarre: A Metrical Romance of the End of the Thirteenth Century, Abbotsford Club (Edinburgh, 1849). For a facsimile reproduction of the entire title page, see Driver, Image in Print, p. 92, figure 14. Driver (pp. 89–90) briefly discusses this romance and cites as publication date 1528 without giving any reason to justify her departure from the STC date. 34 – The Later Versions of ‘Sir Degarre’: A Study in Textual Degeneration, Medium Aevum Monographs, n.s. 18 (Oxford: Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature, 1995), p. 66. 35 – The text of De Worde's printing is edited by E.V. Utterson, Select Pieces of Early Popular Poetry: Re-published Principally from Early Printed Copies in the Black Letter (London: W. Pickering, 1825), vol. 1, pp. 113–55. My line numbers, however, refer to the critical edition by Gustav Schleich, Sire Degarre nach der gesamten Überlieferung und mit Untersuchungen über die Sprache und den Romanzenstoff, Englische Textbibliothek 19 (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1929). This text is reprinted with corrections in Jacobs, The Later Versions of ‘Sir Degarre’, pp. 12–37. 36 – For a facsimile, see Driver, Image in Print, p. 91, figure 13, who describes it as ‘[a] very poor copy of the marriage woodcut’ (p. 89), and cf. Hodnett, English Woodcuts, figure 225. 37 – ‘The Lost Beginning of The Jeaste of Syr Gaweyne and the Collation of Bodleian Library MS Douce 261’, in Arthurian Studies in Honour of P.J.C. Field, ed. Bonnie Wheeler (Cambridge: Brewer, 2004), pp. 133–63, 141 n. 23. 38 – For a discussion, see Jane Bliss, Naming and Namelessness in Medieval Romance (Cambridge: Brewer, 2008), pp. 165–8. 39 – While De Worde used it for the first time in his edition of King Ponthus of 1511, it is possible that it illustrated his earlier edition of 1501 and his editions of Bevis of 1499–1500; in that case it is not impossible, though unlikely, that Pynson could be copying De Worde. Echard, ‘Guy and Bevis in early print illustration’, p. 161 n. 31, and Fellows, ‘printed romance in the sixteenth century’, 76, fail to notice the difference between Hod. 1088 and 1488. 40 – Driver, Image in Print, pp. 89, 90, with a facsimile of the title page (Hod. 1264) from La Sale's book on p. 90, figure 12. On Vérard, see John MacFarlane, Antoine Vérard, Illustrated Monographs no. 7 (London: Bibliographical Society, 1900); Claudin, Histoire de l'imprimerie en France, vol. 2, pp. 385–506; and Mary Beth Winn, Anthoine Vérard, Parisian Publisher 1485–1512: Prologues, Poems, and Presentations (Geneva: Droz, 1997). 41 – Note that reversed copies are indicative of ‘an artist not very confident of his own skill’ that often was ‘merely pasting the illustration on the block, and cutting the wood through the paper’, as explained by Alfred W. Pollard, ‘The transference of woodcuts in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries’, Bibliographica, 2 (1896), pp. 343–68, 351. 42 – For a facsimile, see André Martin, Le livre illustré en France au XVe siècle (Paris: F. Alcan, 1931), pl. XXX; Blum, Les origines du livre à gravure, pl. LXXIV, figure 172. The same woodcut is also printed by Antoine Vérard for his edition of Lancelot du Lac (Paris, 1494; FB 32557) and of Tristan (Paris, c.1496; FB 49886), for which see Mary Beth Winn, ‘Vérard's editions of Tristan’, Arthuriana, 19 (2009), pp. 47–73, with facsimile on p. 58. 43 – The title page of his edition of Octavian (STC 18779, 1505?), illustrated with Hod. 1121, has also been preserved. For a facsimile, see Herman R. Mead, ‘A new title from de Worde's press’, The Library, 5th ser., 9 (1954), pp. 45–9, p. 46. His edition of Arthour and Merlin (STC 17841; 1510) decorates its title page with composite images consisting of two separate compartments, one with a figure labeled ‘Marlyn’ and the other with two figures identified in two scrolls as ‘Uther’ and ‘Pe[n]dra[gon]’, which confusingly refer to a single character. Note also that the facsimile reproduction of the Douce fragments of Wynkyn de Worde's edition of Torrent of Portyngale (STC 24133.5; 1510?), available through Early English Books On-Line (http://eebo.chadwyck.com) includes partially a woodcut (Hod. 884) that, however, is not part of the text of Torrent but of Skelton's ‘Elegy on the death of King Henry VII’, printed on a sheet used as proof to print Torrent; for a discussion and edition of this fragment see G.V. Scammell and H.L. Rogers, ‘An elegy on Henry VII’, Review of English Studies, n.s. 8 (1957), pp. 167–70. 44 – Line numbers refer to Generydes, A Romance in Seven-Line Stanzas, ed. W. Aldis Wright, Early English Text Society, Original Series 57, 59 (London: N. Trübner, 1878). 45 – For a facsimile reproduction of the title page (Hod. 1009), see James Simpson, Reform and Cultural Revolution, 1350–1547 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 297, figure 6. Hod. 1009 had previously been used by De Worde to illustrate the title page of other literary texts (Stephen Hawes, The Pastime of Pleasure [STC 12948; 1509] and The Conforte of Louers [STC 12942.5; 1515]; Geoffrey Chaucer, Troilus and Criseyde [STC 5095; 1517]; The IIII Leues of the Trueloue [STC 15345; 1510?]) and, as Seth Lerer suggests, it ‘would have helped to associate them in thematic, cultural, and literary ways’ (Courtly Letters in the Age of Henry VIII: Literary Culture and the Arts of Deceit [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997], p. 85), thus differentiating The Squyr of Low Degre from the chivalric texts decorated with Hod. 1122 and analogue images on the front page. For a discussion of the use of Hod. 1009 by De Worde with facsimile reproductions of all instances, see Lerer, ‘The wiles of a woodcut: Wynkyn de Worde and the early Tudor reader’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 59 (1998), pp. 381–403, and Letters in the Age of Henry VIII, pp. 65–86. Note, however, that though this woodblock is often adopted in various narrative contexts, this design does not seem to be original to De Worde, but instead an adaptation of the image of the lovers Paris and Vienne as seen on the title page of Meslier's edition (Paris, c.1491); for a facsimile, see Arnim, Katalog der Bibliothek Otto Schäffer, 1:533, no. 262, and Claudin, Histoire de l'imprimerie en France, 2:110. 46 – I quote from The Squyr of Lowe Degre: A Middle English Metrical Romance, ed. William E. Mead [Boston: Ginn, 1904]). For a discussion of the oriel in the poem, see Erik Kooper, ed., Sentimental and Humorous Romances, TEAMS Middle English Text Series (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 2006), p. 162 n. to line 93, and p. 168 n. to line 955 for the implied reference to getting married to the Church. 47 – The line numbers used correspond to Richard Pynson's printing as edited by Eugen Kölbing, The Romance of Sir Beues of Hamtoun, Early English Text Society, Extra Series 46, 48, 65 (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1885–94). For a description of this fragment, see Fellows, ‘Bevis: a textual survey’, p. 110. 48 – ‘A diocesan officer acting as the representative or deputy of a bishop’, Middle English Dictionary, ed. Hans Kurath (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1952–2001), s.v. chaunceler n. 1, 3c. 49 – ‘Romance in late medieval England’, p. 294. 50 – This coupling of rubrics and illustrations should be considered one of De Worde's ‘new methods of creating economical woodcut illustration’ (Driver, Image in Print, p. 34). 51 – To complicate matters further, there is evidence that a now lost edition of Bevis was in existence before 1498; see Henry R. Plomer, ‘Two lawsuits of Richard Pynson’, The Library, 2nd ser., 10 (1909), pp. 115–33, 122, 126–8. Even though the earlier editions of Bevis published by De Worde survive in fragments containing no illustrations, it could still be argued that Pynson was simply copying the images from his predecessor (and his use of Hod. 1488 would not cancel out this possibility). Echard, however, has stated that ‘Bevis acquired its particular visual identity as early as Richard Pynson's printing of 1503’ (‘Guy and Bevis in early print illustration’, p. 156), although she provides no evidence to substantiate her argument beyond Pynson's being the first edition of Bevis to survive with illustrations. But there is one piece of evidence that seems to confirm Echard's supposition: the fact that De Worde copied one of the illustrations in Pynson's Bevis (see figure 1) to use it later in his Sir Degare (see figure 15). Thus, Pynson could not have been imitating the hypothetical visual scheme in De Worde's editions of Bevis. Besides, De Worde's edition of Bevis of 1533 illustrates the jousting scene with a woodcut different from the one used by Pynson. For other efforts at renewing printed texts to compete with rival printers, see Gillespie, Print Culture and the Medieval Author, p. 92. 52 – Richard Coeur de Lion is included in a contemporary list of romances owned by the duke of Buckingham; see Meale, ‘Romance in late medieval England’, p. 297. 53 – Wynkyn de Worde and His Contemporaries from the Death of Caxton to 1535 (London: Grafton, 1925), p. 61. 54 – The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), esp. p. 11.
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