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Coming to Believe “Truths” About Islamist Radicalization in Europe

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 25; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09546553.2012.659361

1556-1836

Daniela Pisoiu,

Populism, Right-Wing Movements

Abstract This article addresses four assumptions behind many of the current theoretical and policy approaches to individual processes of Islamist radicalization in Europe: the association with terrorism and extremism; determinism; the extraordinary nature of radicals; and the reification of the grievance and collective identity discourse. It argues for an intentional and developmental, rather than structural and socio-economic feature-focused, approach to the explanation of the radicalization process, with the consideration of framing and socio-psychological mechanisms having an impact on individual decision-making processes, and for an overall, broader conceptual understanding of radicalism. Keywords: extremismIslampolitical violenceradicalizationterrorism Notes Fernando Reinares, "The Madrid Bombings and Global Jihadism," Survival 52, no. 2 (2010): 83–104. The term radicalization is used in a variety of ways and contexts; see Marc Sedgwick, "The Concept of Radicalization as a Source of Confusion," Terrorism and Political Violence 22, no. 4 (2010): 479–494. Other analysts pointed out its linguistic construction and securitization. See for instance: Jorgan Staun, A Linguistic Turn of Terrorism Studies, DIIS Working Paper 2009:02 (Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, 2009). Radicalization is used in this article to refer to individual processes in a socio-psychological sense, rather than the "phenomenon" of radicalization. While relevant, questions relating to how and why radicalization is linked, its purpose and why it is being used, as well as ontological versus linguistic approaches are beyond the purpose of this article. "Anti-Islam Hatred Poses Serious Terror Threat to Europe," Middle East Online, 2011, http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=47420. Some authors argue for a relative rather than absolute conceptualization, given the different contexts of its use; Sedgwick, "The Concept of Radicalization as a Source of Confusion" (see note 2 above). See for instance Sam Mullins, "Iraq Versus Lack of Integration: Understanding the Motivations of Contemporary Islamist Terrorists in Western Countries," Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 4, no. 2 (2010): 110–133, 111: "Radicalization refers to the process of coming to adopt militant Islamist ideology". See for instance the definition provided by Sageman as "the path to political violence" in Marc Sageman, "Hofstad Case Study & The Blob Theory," in Theoretical Frames on Pathways to Violent Radicalization: Understanding the Evolution of Ideas and Behaviors, How They Interact and How They Describe Pathways to Violence in Marginalized Diaspora, August 2009, http://www.artisresearch.com/articles/ARTIS_Theoretical_Frames_August_2009.pdf, 16. See for instance in Alex S. Wilner and Claire-Jehanne Dubouloz, "Transformative Radicalization: Applying Learning Theory to Islamist Radicalization," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 34, no. 5 (2011): 418–438, 418. "It is a personal (and at times, interpersonal) process in which individuals adopt extreme political, social, and/or religious ideals and aspirations, and in which the attainment of particular goals justifies the use of indiscriminate violence. Radicalization is both a mental and emotional process that can prepare and motivate an individual to pursue violent behaviour". Max Taylor and John Horgan, "The Psychological and Behavioural Bases of Islamic Fundamentalism," Terrorism and Political Violence 13, no. 4 (2002): 37–71; Quintan Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising: Muslim Extremism in the West (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005); Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Mitchell D. Silber and Arvin Bhatt, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat (New York: NYPD Intelligence Division, 2007). Anja Dalgaard-Nielsen, "Violent Radicalization in Europe: What We Know and What We Do Not Know," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 33, no. 9 (2010): 797–814. Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 3–20. Andrew Silke, "The Devil You Know: Continuing Problems with Research on Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence 13, no. 4 (2001): 1–14. Edwin Bakker and Beatrice de Graaf, "Lone Wolves: How to Prevent This Phenomenon?" Expert Meeting Paper, November 2010, The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, http://icct.nl/userfiles/file/ICCT%20EM%20Lone%20Wolves%20Paper.pdf, 5; TTSRL, Radicalization, Recruitment and the EU Counter-radicalization Strategy, 17 November 2008, http://www.transnationalterrorism.eu/tekst/publications/WP4%20Del%207.pdf, 83. European Commission Home Affairs, Countering Radicalization and Recruitment, http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/policies/terrorism/terrorism_radicalization_en.htm. See for instance the radicalization models developed by Sageman, Leaderless Jihad, Silber and Bhatt, Radicalization in the West and Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising (see note 8 above). Shira Fishman, Community-Level Indicators of Radicalization: A Data and Methods Task Force, Report to Human Factors/Behavioral Sciences Division, Science and Technology Directorate, U.S. Department of Homeland Security (College Park, MD: START. 2010), 10. Jamie Bartlett and Carl Miller, "The Edge of Violence: Towards Telling the Difference Between Violent and Non-Violent Radicalization," Terrorism and Political Violence 24, no. 1 (2012): 1–21. John Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (New York: Routledge, 2005). In a different context, it has been similarly argued that "prevention of radicalization, or of the expression of a radical critique of contemporary government policy, is not necessarily the same as this [prevention of engagement in acts of terrorism]." Max Taylor and Gilbert Ramsay, "Violent Radical Content and the Relationship between Ideology and Behaviour: Do Counter-Narratives Matter?," in National Coordinator for Counter Terrorism, ed., Countering Violent Extremist Narratives (The Hague: Netherlands, 2010), 106. Dalgaard-Nielsen, "Violent Radicalization in Europe" (see note 9 above), 798. Max Taylor and John Horgan, "The Psychological and Behavioural Bases of Islamic Fundamentalism," Terrorism and Political Violence 13, no. 4 (2001): 37–71, 48. Silke notes, "In the 1970s and 1980s, there were no claims of Irish Republican Army (IRA) members being 'radicalized,' and there was no reference to a 'radicalization process.' Such a terminology and framework has primarily been a post 9/11 phenomenon and it has been developed in regard to al-Qàida and its disparate affiliates." Andrew Silke, "Disengagement or Deradicalization: A Look at Prison Programs for Jailed Terrorists," CTC Sentinel 4, no. 1 (2011): 18–21, 20. Tufyal Choudhury, The Role of Muslim Identity Politics in Radicalization, A working paper of the Department of Communities and Local Government (London, 2007); Jerrold M. Post and Gabriel Sheffer, "The Risk of Radicalization and Terrorism in U.S. Muslim Communities," Brown Journal of World Affairs 13, no. 2 (2007): 101–112, Tinka Veldhuis and Edwin Bakker, Muslims in the Netherlands: Tensions and Violent Conflict, MICROCON Policy Working Paper 6 (Brighton: MICROCON, 2009); Toby Witte and Ton Notten, "On the Radicalization of Muslim Youngsters in the Netherlands: Current Research and Some Perspectives," Forum 21 (2008): 96–103; Doron Zimmermann and William Rosenau, eds., The Radicalization of Diasporas and Terrorism (Zürich: Center for Security Studies, ETH Zurich, 2007). Veldhuis and Bakker, Muslims in the Netherlands: Tensions and Violent Conflict (see note 22 above). Zimmermann and Rosenau, The Radicalization of Diasporas and Terrorism (see note 22 above). Bartlett and Miller, "The Edge of Violence" (see note 16 above). Manni Crone and Martin Harrow, Homegrown Terrorism in the West, 1989–2008, DIIS Working Paper 2010:30 (Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, 2010). See also the Sauerland group case in Germany, where two of the four members, one of them the leader, are converts, FAZ, "Wie'n zweiter 11. September," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, October 11, 2008, http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/terrorbekaempfung-wie-n-zweiter-11-september-1713161.html. Peter Neumann, Joining Al-Qaeda: Jihadist Recruitment in Europe (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2008); Lorenzo Vidino, "Europe's New Security Dilemma," The Washington Quarterly 32 (2009): 61–75. Christina Helmich, "Creating the Ideology of Al Qaeda: From Hypocrites to Salafi-Jihadists," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 31, no. 2 (2008): 111–124, 114, 119. Scott Atran and Richard Davis, "Executive Summary," in Theoretical Frames on Pathways to Violent Radicalization: Understanding the Evolution of Ideas and Behaviors, How They Interact and How They Describe Pathways to Violence in Marginalized Diaspora, August 2009, http://www.artisresearch.com/articles/ARTIS_Theoretical_Frames_August_2009.pdf, 7. Jonathan Githens-Mazer and Robert Lambert, "Why Conventional Wisdom on Radicalization Fails: The Persistence of a Failed Discourse," International Affairs 86, no. 4 (2010): 889–901, 896. Robert Wesley, "Combating Terrorism Through a Counter-Framing Strategy," CTC Sentinel, 1 (2008): 10–12. AIVD, Resilience and Resistance: Current Trends and Developments in Salafism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: General Intelligence and Security Service of the Netherlands, 2010). Githens-Mazer and Lambert, "Why Conventional Wisdom on Radicalization Fails" (see note 30 above), 896; also Robert Lambert, "Police and Muslim Communities in London," in Thomas M. Pick, Anne Speckhard, and Beatrice Jacuch, eds., Home-Grown Terrorism: Understanding and Addressing the Root Causes of Radicalization among Groups with an Immigrant Heritage in Europe (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2009), 51–73. Sophia Moskalenko and Clark McCauley, "Measuring Political Mobilization: The Distinction Between Activism and Radicalism Intentions," Terrorism and Political Violence 21, no. 2 (2009): 239–260. Rem Korteweg, Sajjan Gofel, Francois Heisbourg, Magnus Ranstorp, and Rob de Wijk, "Background Contributing Factors to Terrorism," in Magnus Ranstorp, ed., Understanding Violent Radicalization: Terrorist and Jihadist Movements in Europe (London: Routledge, 2010), 21–49, 31. Wilner and Dubouloz, "Transformative Radicalization" (see note 7 above), 418. Denmark Government, The Challenge of Extremism: Examples of Deradicalization and Disengagement Programmes in the EU, October 2010, http://www.nyidanmark.dk/NR/rdonlyres/20FBDF6E-43C2-43F1-A770-D908D67AC16C/0/the_challenge_of_extremisme_final.pdf, 9. See for example: MIKR, Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, Polarisation and Radicalization: Action Plan 2007–2011, http://english.minbzk.nl/aspx/download.aspx?file=/contents/pages/89799/minbiz007_actieplanuk-v3.pdf; HM-Government, Pursue, Prevent, Protect, Prepare: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering International Terrorism. Annual Report (London: DIK, 2010); "Schlussfolgerungen des Plenums vom 17. Mai 2010. Künftiges Arbeitsprogramm," in Bundesministerium des Inneren, Deutsche Islam Konferenz (Bonn: May 2010), http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Themen/Politik_Gesellschaft/DIK/schlussfolgerungen_plenum2010.pdf?__blob=publicationFile; the Danish counterradicalization action plan: "A Common and Safe Future: An Action Plan to Prevent Extremist Views and Radicalization Among Young People," commented in Angel Rabasa, Stacie L. Pettyjohn, Jeremy J. Ghez, and Christopher Boucek, Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2010). "London bomber video: Full statement," The Times, September 2, 2005, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,22989-1762124,00.html. Daniela Pisoiu, Islamist Radicalization in Europe: An Occupational Change Process (London: Routledge, 2011), 22–23. Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Laura Grossman, Homegrown Terrorists in the US and UK: An Empirical Examination of the Radicalization Process (Washington: FDD Press, 2009), 13. See for instance the argument that the use of the radicalization concept by the British government involves the stigmatization and exclusion of certain religious groups, in particular the Brixton Salafis, due to their anti-establishment and critical attitudes. Githens-Mazer and Lambert, "Why Conventional Wisdom on Radicalization Fails" (see note 30 above), 901. See for instance Petter Nesser, "Jihadism in Western Europe After the Invasion of Iraq: Tracing Motivational Influences from the Iraq War on Jihadist Terrorism in Western Europe," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29, no. 4 (2006): 323–342; Tufyal Choudhury, The Role of Muslim Identity Politics in Radicalization (a study in progress) (London: Department for Communities and Local Government London, 2007). Tahir Abbas, "Islamic Political Radicalism in Western Europe," in Tahir Abbas, ed., Islamic Political Radicalism: A European Comparative Perspective (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 2007), 3–14; Korteweg et al., "Background Contributing Factors to Terrorism" (see note 35 above); Peter K. Waldmann, Radicalization in the Diaspora: Why Muslims in the West Attack Their Host Countries, Working Paper 9 (Madrid: Real Institut Alcano, 2010.). See for instance the models developed in Randy Borum, Psychology of Terrorism (Tampa: University of South Florida, 2004); Keishin Inaba, "Conversion to New Religious Movements; Reassessment of Lofland/Skonovd Conversion Motifs and Lofland/Stark Conversion Process," Human Sciences Research 11, no. 2 (2004): 33–47; Silber and Bhatt, Radicalization in the West (see note 8 above); Michael Taarnby, Recruitment of Islamist Terrorists in Europe: Trends and Perspectives (Aarhus: Centre for Cultural Research, University of Aarhus, 2005). Magnus Ranstorp, (ed., Understanding Violent Radicalization: Terrorist and Jihadist Movements in Europe (London: Routledge 2010); Frank J. Buijs, Demant Froukja, and Atef Hamdy, Home Grown Warriors: Radical and Democratic Muslims in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006). John Horgan and Tore Bjørgo, eds., Leaving Terrorism Behind: Individual and Collective Disengagement, Political Violence (London: Routledge, 2009); John Horgan, Walking Away from Terrorism: Accounts of Disengagement from Radical and Extremist Movements (Milton Park: Routledge, 2009). For a critique see: Tinka Veldhuis and Jørgen Staun, Islamist Radicalization: A Root Cause Model (The Hague, Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael, 2009). Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 8 above). John Horgan, "From Profiles to Pathways and Roots to Routes: Perspectives from Psychology on Radicalization into Terrorism," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618 (2008): 80–94, 82. Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Marieke Slootman and Jean Tillie, Processes of Radicalization: Why Some Amsterdam Muslims Become Radicals (Amsterdam: Institute for Migrations and Ethnic Studies, University of Amsterdam, 2006). Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising (see note 8 above); Wilner and Dubouloz, "Transformative Radicalization" (see note 7 above). See the two radicalization cases examined by Vidino, where only one of the two individuals has experienced what could be labeled as cognitive opening: Lorenzo Vidino, "The Buccinasco Pentiti: A Unique Case Study of Radicalization," Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 3 (2011): 398–418. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (see note 17 above). COT, Causal Factors of Radicalization (The Hague: Institute for Safety, Security and Crisis Management, 2008); Veldhuis and Staun, Islamist Radicalization (see note 48 above). "Profile Mohammad Sidique Khan," BBC News Online, last updated Monday, April 30, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4762209.stm. Edwin Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe: Their Characteristics and the Circumstances in Which They Joined the Jihad: An Exploratory Study (The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations, Clingendael: 2006), 32. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (see note 17 above). Bartlett and Miller, "The Edge of Violence" (see note 16 above), 8. Dalgaard-Nielsen, "Violent Radicalization in Europe" (see note 9 above), 801. Michael King and Donald M. Taylor, "The Radicalization of Homegrown Jihadists: A Review of Theoretical Models and Social Psychological Evidence," Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 4 (2011): 602–622, 612. Here it needs to be said that they do not apply the same reasoning to the other factor they identify as having an effect on radicalization, namely relative deprivation. Ranstorp, UnderstandingViolent Radicalization (see note 46 above). Lewis Rambo, "The Psychology of Religious Conversion" (paper delivered at the International Coalition for Religious Freedom Conference on "Religious Freedom and the New Millennium," Berlin, May 29–31, 1998). See Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising on indoctrination as socialization process (see note 8 above). Andrew Silke, "Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research," Psychology, Crime and Law 4 (1998): 51–69. David J. Kilcullen, "Subversion and Countersubversion in the Campaign against Terrorism in Europe," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 30, no. 8 (2007): 647–666; Anne Speckhard, "The Militant Jihad in Europe: Fighting Home-Grown Terrorism," in Thomas M. Pick, Anne Speckhard, and Beatrice Jacuch, eds., Home-Grown Terrorism: Understanding and Addressing the Root Causes of Radicalization among Groups with an Immigrant Heritage in Europe (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2009), 143–160. Abbas, "Islamic Political Radicalism in Western Europe" (see note 44 above); COT, Causal Factors of Radicalization (see note 55 above); Olivier Roy, Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (London: Hurst & Company, 2004). Latéfa Belarouci, "Islamism: The Process of Identity Formation," in Thomas M. Pick, Anne Speckhard, and Beatrice Jacuch, eds., Home-Grown Terrorism: Understanding and Addressing the Root Causes of Radicalization among Groups with an Immigrant Heritage in Europe (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2009), 3–17; Farhad Khosrokhavar, Suicide Bombers: Allah's New Martyrs (London: Pluto Press, 2005). Boaz Ganor, "An Intifada in Europe? A Comparative Analysis of Radicalization Processes Among Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza versus Muslim Immigrants in Europe," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 34, no. 8 (2011): 587–599. For a more elaborated debate on the framing of minorities' social problems as conducive to radicalization see Jorgen Staun, "When, How and Why Elites Frame Terrorists: A Wittgensteinian Analysis of Terror and Radicalization," Critical Studies on Terrorism 3, no. 3 (2010): 403–420. Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State: A Comparative Analysis of Italy and Germany (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Bartlett and Miller, "The Edge of Violence" (see note 16 above), 6. Pisoiu, Islamist Radicalization in Europe (see note 40 above). Donatella della Porta, "Political Socialization in Left-wing Underground Organizations: Biographies of Italian and German Militants," in Donatella della Porta, ed., Social Movements and Violence: Participation in Underground Organizations (Greenwich/London: JAI Press: 1992), 259–290. Max Taylor and Ethal Quayle, Terrorist Lives (London: Brassey's, 1994). Diego Gambetta, "Can We Make Sense of Suicide Missions?," in Diego Gambetta, ed., Making Sense of Suicide Missions (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 259–300; Olivier Roy, The Future of Radical Islam in Europe, a roundtable discussion at the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 6 November 2007, http://www.cfr. org/europerussia/roundtable-series-global-islamic-politics-future-radical-islam-europe-rush-transcript-federal-news-service/p14743; Marc Sageman, Radicalization of Global Islamist Terrorists, Testimony to the U.S. Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee, June 27, 2007, http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Hearings.Hearing&Hearing_ ID=9c8ef805-75c8-48c2-810d-d778af31cca6. Taylor and Quayle, Terrorist Lives (see note 75 above); Bartlett and Miller, "The Edge of Violence" (see note 16 above), 14–15. Simon Cottee and Keith Hayward, "Terrorist (E)motives: The Existential Attractions of Terrorism," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 34, no. 12 (2011): 963–986, 965. Cottee applies the subcultural theory of delinquency to the third Al Qaeda wave as identified by Sageman in Leaderless Jihad and concludes that "third wave jihadism can be described as a collective solution, devised by young westernized Muslim males, to resolve their twin problems of status-frustration and identity-confusion": Simon Cottee, "Jihadism as a Subcultural Response to Social Strain: Extending Marc Sageman's 'Bunch of Guys' Thesis," Terrorism and Political Violence 23, no. 5 (2011): 730–751, 738. "Because terrorism involves violence and high degrees of danger and personal risk for the terrorist, the question of what motivates people to engage in it can be illuminated by considering other projects of violence and dangerous behaviours." Cottee and Hayward, "Terrorist (E)motives" (see note 78 above), 966. For an economic conceptualization of participation in terrorism as occupational choice see Alan Krueger, "What Makes a Terrorist," The American, November/December 2007, http://www.american.com/archive/2007/november-december-magazine-contents/what-makes-a-terrorist. See for instance the notion of "a culture of violence" in Bartlett and Miller, "The Edge of Violence" (see note 16 above). Cottee and Hayward, "Terrorist (E)motives" (see note 78 above), 978; Barry McCarthy, "Warrior Values: A Socio-Historical Survey," in John Archer, ed., Male Violence (London: Routledge, 1994), 105–120, 106. Atran and Davis, "Executive Summary" (see note 29 above), 8. Farhad Khosrokhavar, Quand Al-Qaïda parle: Témoignages derrière les barreaux (Paris: Grasset & Fasquelle, 2006), 131. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (see note 17 above) and Horgan, Walking Away from Terrorism (see note 47 above). Vidino, "The Buccinasco Pentiti" (see note 53 above), 405. A similar case is that of Nizar Trabelsi, who saw in Osama bin Laden a father figure, see Daniela Pisoiu "Von neuer Religiosität zu politischer Gewalt. Religiöse Ursachen für islamische Radikalisierung in Westeuropa," in Thomas Kolnberger und Clemens Six, eds., Fundamentalismus und Terrorismus. Zu Geschichte und Gegenwart radikalisierter Religion (Essen: Magnus Verlag, 2007), 168–187. Vidino, "The Buccinasco Pentiti" (see note 53 above), 408. King and Taylor, "The Radicalization of Homegrown Jihadists" (see note 61 above), 610. King and Taylor, "The Radicalization of Homegrown Jihadists" (see note 61 above), 609–610. Sageman's model does include the element of moral outrage, Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 8 above). The Sunday Times (see note 39 above). Roy, Globalised Islam (see note 67 above). Khosrokhavar, Suicide Bombers (see note 68 above): 152. Roy, Globalised Islam (see note 67 above): 132–133. William A. Gamson, "The Social Psychology of Collective Action," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 53–76, 57. Debra Friedman and Doug McAdam, "Collective Identity and Activism," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 156–173. Alison Pargeter, The New Frontiers of Jihad: Radical Islam in Europe (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 145. Jonathan Githens-Mazer, "The Blowback of Repression and the Dynamics of North African Radicalization," International Affairs 85, no. 5 (2009): 1015–1029. Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 8 above). See for instance Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising on the role of the authority of the frame articulator and the way it comes to use during recruitment (see note 8 above). Githens-Mazer and Lambert, "Why Conventional Wisdom on Radicalization Fails" (see note 30 above), 892; Bartlett and Miller, "The Edge of Violence" (see note 16 above); Vidino, "The Buccinasco Pentiti" (see note 53 above). Vidino, "The Buccinasco Pentiti" (see note 53 above). Pisoiu, Islamist Radicalization in Europe (see note 40 above). Daniela Pisoiu, "Radicalization on the Internet—The case of GIMF," forthcoming. Gerhard Schmidtchen, "Terroristische Karrieren. Soziologische Analyse anhand von Fahndungsunterlagen und Prozessakten," in Herbert Jäger, Gerhard Schmidtchen, and Liselotte Süllwold, eds., Lebenslaufanalysen (Opladen: Bundesministerium des Inneren, 1981), 14–79. Liselotte Süllwold, "Stationen in der Entwicklung von Terroristen: Psychologische Aspekte biographischer Daten," in Herbert Jäger, Gerhard Schmidtchen, and Liselotte Süllwold, eds., Lebenslaufanalysen (Opladen: Bundesministerium des Inneren, 1981), 80–116. della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (see note 71 above). Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising (see note 8 above), 48. Ranstorp, Understanding Violent Radicalization (see note 46 above), 13. Barney G. Glaser, Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the Methodology of Grounded Theory (Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press, 1978), 105. Additional informationNotes on contributorsDaniela Pisoiu Daniela Pisoiu is affiliated with the Institute for Peace Research and Security Studies, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.