Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Small Nations but Great Differences: Political Orientations and Cultures of the Crimean Tatars and the Gagauz

2005; Routledge; Volume: 57; Issue: 6 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09668130500199483

1465-3427

Ivan Katchanovski,

Political Conflict and Governance

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes The population data for Crimea include Sevastopol city; see 'Vseukrainskyi perepys naselennya 2001', Derzhavnyi komitet statystyky Ukrainy, 2004, http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/. Charles King, 'Minorities Policy in the Post-Soviet Republics: The Case of the Gagauzi', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, October 1997, pp. 738 – 756. See for example William Crowther, 'Moldova: Caught between Nation and Empire', in Ian Bremmer & Ray Taras (eds), New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 316 – 349; David Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1998); David Laitin, 'Secessionist Rebellion in the Former Soviet Union', Comparative Political Studies, 34, October 2001, pp. 839 – 861; and Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture (Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 2000). Gabriel Almond & Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Boston, Little, Brown, 1965), p. 13. Seymour Martin Lipset, Noah Meltz, Rafael Gomez & Ivan Katchanovski, Paradox of American Unionism: Why Americans Like Unions More Than Canadians Do, but Join Much Less (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2004). Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Culture (New York, Basic Books, 1973). Larry Diamond, 'Causes and Effects', in Larry Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO, L. Rienner, 1993), pp. 229 – 249; Daniel Elazar, American Federalism: A View From the States (New York, Crowell, 1966); and Seymour Martin Lipset, Continental Divide: The Values and Institutions of the United States and Canada (New York, Routledge, 1990). Robert Putnam, Robert Leonardi & Raffaella Y. Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1993). Douglas North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990). Ivan Katchanovski, 'Divergence in Growth in Post-Communist Countries', Journal of Public Policy, 20, January 2000, pp. 55 – 81. See Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, pp. 412 – 413; Elazar, American Federalism, pp. 94 – 96. Max Weber, 'Critical Studies in the Logic of the Cultural Sciences', in Edward A. Shils & Henry A. Finch (eds), The Methodology of the Social Sciences (Glencoe, Free Press, 1949), pp. 181 – 183. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York, Touchstone, 1996). Ibid.; Max Weber, Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism (New York, Charles Scribner's, 1958). See for example Maria Drohobycky (ed.), Crimea: Dynamics, Challenges, and Prospects (Lanham, MD, Rowman & Littlefield, 1995); Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1978); and Brian Glyn Williams, The Crimean Tatars. The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation (Leiden, Brill, 2001). Crowther, 'Moldova', p. 320. D. C. B. Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and its Rivals (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2001), p. 389. Oksana Shevel, 'Krymski tatary ta Ukrainska derzhava: Pytannya polityky, pravozastosuvannya ta znachennya rytoryky', Krymski Studii, 1, 7, 2001, pp. 109 – 129. 'Zayava Kurultayu krymskotatarskoho narodu "Pro vybory prezydenta Ukrainy"', Tsentr Informatsii ta Dokumentatsii Krymskych Tatar, 2005, http://www.cidct.org.ua. Voting results that include Sevastopol city are calculated from data reported by the Central Electoral Commission of Ukraine, 2004, http://www.cvk.gov.ua. Ukrainian Centre for Economic and Political Studies, 'Krym na politychnij karti Ukrainy', Natsionalna Bezpeka i Oborona, 16, 4, 2001, pp. 2 – 39. Andrew Wilson, 'Presidential and Parliamentary Elections in Ukraine: The Issue of Crimea,' in Drohobycky (ed.), Crimea, p. 113. Obshchestvennoe mnenie: Aktual'nye problemy sotsial'noi zhizni SSR Moldova (Chisinau, Department of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, 1990), p. 109. IFES, Republic of Moldova: Local Elections, April 16, 1995 (Chisinau, Tish, 1995). Ibid. IFES, Republic of Moldova: Parliamentary Elections, March 22, 1998 (Chisinau, Tish, 1998); IFES, 2001 Parliamentary Elections, http://www.ifes.md/elections/electionresults 2002; and Electorala '98: Documente si cifre (Chisinau, Tish, 1998). http://www.alegeri2005.md, 2005. Ibid. Ibid. See USIA, 'Crimean Views Differ Sharply from Ukrainian Opinion on Key Issues', 15 March 1996. Carina Korostelina, 'The social – Psychological Roots of the Ethnic Problems in Crimea', Demokratizatsiya, 8, Spring 2000, pp. 219 – 231. See Obshchestvennoe mnenie, p. 114. See Jeff Chinn & Steven Roper, 'Territorial Autonomy in Gagauzia', Nationalities Papers, 26, March 1998, p. 95. The March 1991 referendum was not held in other regions of Moldova. Respondents who considered themselves at least 50% Gagauz are classified as Gagauz in this study. Independent, 3 December 1991, p. 8. King, 'Minorities Policy in the post-Soviet Republics'. See Chinn & Roper, 'Territorial Autonomy in Gagauzia', pp. 87 – 101. European Centre for Minority Issues, 'From Ethnopolitical Conflict to Inter-ethnic Accord in Moldova', report on a seminar held in Flensburg, Germany, and Bjerremark, Denmark, 12 – 17 September 1997, http://www.ecmi.de/activities/moldova_report.htm; Regional Development Programme "Gagauz-Yeri" (Chisinau-Comrat, UNDP-Moldova and Administration of the Territorial Autonomous Unit Gagauzia (Gagauz-Yeri), 2001), p. 20. See King, 'Minorities Policy in the Post-Soviet Republics', p. 750. Carina Korostelina, 'The Multiethnic State-building Dilemma: National and Ethnic Minorities' Identities in the Crimea', National Identities, 5, July 2003, p. 147. M. Guboglo & A. Yakubovsky, Mnogonatsional'nyi Odeskii krai: Obraz i real'nost', Vol. 3 (Moscow, Staryi Sad, 1997), p. 180. Ronald Inglehart et al., World Values Surveys and European Values Surveys, 1981 – 84, 1990 – 93, and 1995 – 97 (Computer file), ICPSR version (Ann Arbor, Institute for Social Research, 2000). 'Crimean Tatars Recall Mass Exile', BBC News, 18 May 2004. 'Stalin Vidpochyvae', Ukraina Moloda, 31 March 2005. Korostelina, 'The Social-Psychological Roots of the Ethnic Problems in Crimea'. KIIS, 'Gromadska dumka v Ukraini: Gruden 2001', 2002, http://www.kiis.com.ua/release-last2.htm. Guboglo & Yakubovsky, Mnogonatsional'nyi Odeskii krai, pp. 179 – 206. See R. J. Crampton, A Concise History of Bulgaria (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997); R. J. Rummel, Death by Government (New Brunswick, Transactions Publishers, 1994); Maria Todorova, 'The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans', in Carl L. Brown (ed.), Imperial Legacy: the Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East (New York, Columbia University Press, 1996), pp. 45 – 77. See Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450 – 1725 (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 21 – 22, 679 – 680; Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500 – 1800 (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 22. Istoriya Ukrainy: Nove bachennya (Kyiv, Ukraina, 1995), p. 131. Soviet scholars downplayed the role of slavery in the Crimean khanate because it did not fit a Marxist view of historical development as a movement from a slave-owning society in ancient times towards feudalism in medieval times and then into capitalism and communism in modern times. Western studies minimised or justified massive Ukrainian and Russian slavery in the Crimean khanate and mostly ignored the forced migration of tens of thousands of Gagauz, Bulgarians and other Orthodox Christians from the Ottoman Empire to the Russian Empire. The subject of slavery in the Crimean khanate had extremely limited coverage in the Western scholarly literature given the fact that this slavery was the major component of Ottoman slavery, which exceeded American slavery and was comparable, according to some existing estimates, to the size of Trans-Atlantic slavery (see Hellie, Slavery in Russia). Studies which described the religious tolerance of the Ottoman Empire ignored the slavery in the Crimean khanate, an Ottoman vassal state, and a major source of the slaves sold in the Empire. Furthermore, some Western scholars justified enslavement of Ukrainians and Russians by Crimean Tatars as highly beneficial to the economy of the Crimean khanate and even to the slaves themselves (see Paul Coles, The Ottoman Impact on Europe (New York, Harcourt, 1968), p. 54; Fisher, The Crimean Tatars, p. 27). See Fisher, The Crimean Tatars; H. Inalcik, 'Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire', in Abraham Ascher, Tibor Halasi-Kun & Bela K. Kiraly (eds), The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo – Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern (New York, Brooklyn College Press, 1979), pp. 25 – 52; Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier; Hellie, Slavery in Russia; and Lieven, Empire. See Paul Robert Magocsi, History of Ukraine (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1996); and Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1981). See Lieven, Empire, p. 153. King, The Moldovans, pp. 210 – 211. See Chinn & Roper, 'Territorial Autonomy in Gagauzia', p. 89. See Yurij Zinchenko, Krymski tatary: Istorychnyi narys (Kyiv, Holovna spetsializovana redaktsiya literatury movamy natsionalnych menshyn Ukrainy, 1998). These numbers are estimated from the data on the ethnic composition of the population before the war, civilian and POW losses in Crimea and the overall Soviet civilian, POW and military losses in Ukraine during World War II. See Nazi Crimes in Ukraine: 1941 – 1945 (Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1987), p. 363; and Volodymyr Kosyk, Ukraina i Nimmechyna u Drugij Svitovij Vijni (Pariz-Lviv, Naukove Tovarystvo Imeni Shevchenka, 1993), pp. 625 – 627. See Götz Aly & Susanne Heim, Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction, translated by A. G. Blunden (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2002); Kosyk, Ukraina i Nimmechyna u Drugij Svitovij Vijni. G. Bekirova, Krymskotatarskaya problema v SSSR (1944 – 1991) (Simferopol, Odzhak, 2004); Otto J. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937 – 1949 (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1999). See Bekirova, Krymskotatarskaya problema v SSSR. Crowther, 'Moldova', p. 335. King, The Moldovans, p. 211. Personal observations. Additional informationNotes on contributorsIvan KatchanovskiI am grateful to Francis Fukuyama, Don Kash, Seymour Martin Lipset, Ilya Prizel and an anonymous reviewer for their comments and suggestions on various stages of this project. I would like to acknowledge Hans Klingemann for providing the World Values Survey dataset, the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation which funded the Laitin/Hough surveys, David Laitin, the principal investigator who directed the surveys and provided the datasets, and the International Foundation for Election Systems for supplying data on elections in Moldova. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 9th Annual World Convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities at Columbia University in April 2004. Responsibility for any mistakes remains my own.