Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

European Crisis, Colonial Crisis? Signs of Fracture in the French Empire from Munich to the Outbreak of War

2010; Routledge; Volume: 32; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/07075332.2010.507341

1949-6540

Martin Thomas,

African history and culture studies

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1 Key, recent exceptions from the British colonial perspective are Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper's sequential volumes, Forgotten Armies: Britain's Asian Empire and War with Japan (London, 2005), and Forgotten Wars: The End of Britain's Asian Empire (London, 2008). Their titles are, of course, suggestive of the problem to be addressed. 2 The Journal of Global History and Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History, respectively excellent new journals in the fields of global history and ‘new imperial history’, rarely approach colonial issues from an international, in the sense of inter-state, perspective. The former places strong (and illuminating) emphasis on political economies of globalization and the latter pursues largely culturalist approaches in explaining colonialism as a phenomenon. 3 ‘Voeux de l'Algérie pour 1939. Le budget de l'Algérie’, Le Républicain, 6 Jan. 1939, [Paris] A[rchives] N[ationales] (hereafter AN), F60 733: Dossiers de Camille Chautemps, vice-président du Conseil concernant les affaires nord-africaines, 1937–39. 4 ‘Commission chargée de déterminer les modalités d'utilisation du crédit de cent millions mis à la disposition de l'Algérie par le décret du 15 Octobre 1936’; no. 1789/SP, Georges Le Beau letter to Camille Chautemps, 3 May 1939, AN, F60 733: Dossiers Chautemps, Sous-dossier: Questions financiers, Cabinet du Secrétaire Général. 5 Algiers Cabinet note, ‘Mesures immédiates proposés en vue de lutter efficacement contre la propagande hitlérienne en Algérie’, no date, September 1939, AN, F60 733: Dossiers Chautemps, Sous-dossier: Ordre publique. 6 D. Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming War: Europe, 1904–1914 (Oxford, 1996, reprint 2004), 420. 7 A point made in most textbook accounts of decolonization, see, for instance: J. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation. The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); J. Darwin, The End of the British Empire. The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); R. Betts, France and Decolonisation, 1900–1960 (Basingstoke, 1990); W. D. McIntyre, British Decolonization, 1946–1997 (Basingstoke, 1998); J. Springhall, Decolonisation since 1945 (Basingstoke, 2001); R. F. Holland (ed), Emergencies and Disorder in the European Empires after 1945 (London, 1994); M. Shipway, Decolonization and its Impact (Oxford, 2007). For an excellent summary of the British Empire historiography, see J. Darwin, ‘Decolonization and the End of Empire’ in R. W. Winks (ed), The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume V: Historiography (Oxford, 1999). 8 E. Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford, 2007); M. Mazower, ‘Paved Intentions: Civilization and Imperialism’, World Affairs, (Fall 2008), 76–80. 9 R. F. Holland, European Decolonization since 1918 (Basingstoke, 1985); R. Hyam, Britain's Declining Empire. The Road to Decolonisation 1918–1968 (Cambridge, 2006); M. Thomas, B. Moore and L. J. Butler, Crises of Empire. Decolonization and Europe's Imperial States, 1918–1975 (London, 2008); Robert Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke, 2009), especially 425–38. 10 Two examples, one of the British Empire, the other of the French, illustrate the point: A. Clayton, The British Empire as a Superpower, 1919–39 (London, 1986); J. E. Dreifort, Myopic Grandeur: Ambivalence of French Foreign Policy Toward the Far East, 1919–45 (Ohio, 1992). 11 M. Lagana, ‘L'échec de la commission d'enquête coloniale du Front populaire’, Historical Reflections, xvi, No. 1 (1989), 79–97; C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, ‘The Popular Front and the Colonial Question. French West Africa: An Example of Reformist Colonialism’, and G. Lydon, ‘Women, Children and the Popular Front's Missions of Inquiry in French West Africa’, both in T. Chafer and A. Sackur (eds), French Colonial Empire and the Popular Front. Hope and Disillusion (London, 1999), 157–9 and 173–6; Lydon, ‘The Unravelling of a Neglected Source: A Report on Women in Francophone West Africa in the 1930s’, Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, xxxvii, No. 147 (1997), 555–84; V. Nguyen-Marshall, In Search of Moral Authority. The Discourse on Poverty, Poor Relief, and Charity in French Colonial Vietnam (New York, 2008), 122–31; Lord Hailey, An African Survey - A Study of Problems Arising in Africa, South of the Sahara (London, 1938); S. Walton, Lord Hailey, the Colonial Office and the Politics of Race and Empire in the Second World War: The Loss of White Prestige (London, 2000), chapter 1. 12 Excellent treatments that look forward to the war years include S. Wolpert, Shameful Flight. The Last Years of the British Empire in India (New York, 2006); O. Nigel Bolland, On the March: Labour Rebellions in the British Caribbean, 1934–39 (Oxford, 1995); J. Bessis, La Méditerranée fasciste: La Tunisie et l'Italie mussolinienne (reprint, Paris, 2000); D. G. Marr, Vietnam 1945. The Quest for Power (Berkeley, 1997). 13 P. S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate. The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945 (London, 1987), part vii; M. Zamir, Lebanon's Quest. The Road to Statehood 1926–1939 (London, 1997), chapter 4; M. Kolinsky, ‘The collapse and restoration of public security’, and J. Nevo, ‘Palestinian-Arab violent activity during the 1930s’, both in M. J. Cohen and M. Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s. Security Problems (Basingstoke, 1992), 147–89. 14 C.-R. Ageron, ‘A propos d'une prétendue politique de “répli imperial” dans la France des années 1938–39’, Revue d'Histoire Maghrébine, xii (1978), 228–37. 15 Tokyo naval attaché, ‘L'annexation des îles Spratley par le Japon’, 1 May 1939, Vincennes, Service Historique de la Marine, 2BB7/T1, EMG–2; B. Q., ‘Japon. Le marche vers les mers du sud’, Revue Française d'Outre-Mer, dcclxvi (May 1939), 139–40; Dreifort, Myopic Grandeur, 149–53. 16 O. Louis, ‘De Bizerte à Mers El-Kébir: les bases navales d'Afrique du Nord dans l'entre-deux-guerres’, Revue Historique des Armées, ccxvii (Dec. 1999), 31–45. 17 M. Michel, ‘La puissance par l'Empire. Note sur la perception du facteur imperial dans l'élaboration de la défense nationale (1936–1938)’, Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer, lxix, No. 254 (1982), 38–41. 18 H. Coutou-Bégarie and C. Huan (eds), Lettres et Notes de l'Amiral Darlan (Paris, 1992), 49–53, 95–6. 19 Foremost among these realist strategists was Admiral Raoul Castex, former Commander of the French North Atlantic fleet, head of France's National War College, and author of an influential five-volume study, Théories stratégiques, published between 1930 and 1935. For details, see E. Kiesling, Arming Against Hitler. France and the Limits of Military Planning (Lawrence, KA, 1996), 49–53. 20 L. Guenfoud, ‘Crise européenne et problème colonial’, L'Afrique Française, xxxviii, No. 10 (October 1938), 352–9; regarding earlier French responses to colonial appeasement, see M. Thomas, Britain, France and Appeasement. Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era (Oxford, 1996), 62–9, 115–37 passim. 21 J. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 (Oxford, 2001), 97–101; for fuller discussion of the Daladier government's ‘firmness’ and its roots in intelligence assessment, see P. Jackson, France and the Nazi Menace: Intelligence and Policy Making, 1933–1939 (Oxford, 2000), chapters 8–9. 22 ‘Les grands courants d'opinion dans l'Islam nord-africain’, Aix-en-Provence, Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer (CAOM), 8H61/D1, HCM March 1937 session, report 2; Ministère d'Etat chargé des affaires de l'Afrique du Nord, Cabinet Chautemps, 1937–38, ‘L'exposé de M. Albert Sarraut sur l'Afrique du Nord’, Le Temps, 28 Nov. 1937, Carcassonne, Archives départementales de l'Aude, Albert Sarraut Papers, 12J118. 23 R. Vinen, The Politics of French Business, 1936–1945 (Cambridge, 1992), 68–87; T. Imlay, Facing the Second World War. Strategy, Politics, and Economics in Britain and France, 1938–1940 (Oxford, 2003), 264–5. 24 Sir Eric Phipps (Paris) to FO, ‘France, Annual Report, Economic (B)’, 26 Nov. 1938, Kew, N[ational] A[rchives] (henceforth NA), FO 371/21589, C14755/1/17. 25 Ibid. 26 ‘Aide financière de la Métropole à l'Afrique du Nord en 1937–1938’, 4 Feb. 1938, AN, F60 1426: Dossiers Chautemps. In fulfilment of the Popular Front's August 1936 unemployment relief programme, during 1938 the three North African territories also disbursed 66.5 million francs in public works spending, of which 40 million went to Algeria. 27 Dept. of Overseas Trade, Rabat Consular memo, ‘Report on economic and commercial conditions in the French Zone of Morocco (1937–38)’, 28 April 1939, NA, FO 371/24060, W6919/740/28. 28 Consul General L. H. Hurst (Rabat) ‘Monthly report on conditions in the French Zone of Morocco (December 1938)’, sent to FO on 9 Jan. 1939, NA, FO 371/24060, W740/740/28. 29 Dept. of Overseas Trade, Rabat Consular memo, ‘Report on economic and commercial conditions in the French Zone of Morocco (1937–38)’, 28 April 1939, NA, FO 371/24060, W6919/740/28. 30 Consul Knight (Tunis) to Foreign Office, 9 April 1938, NA, FO 371/21604, C2853/139/17. 31 Regarding the detention and judicial proceedings against Habib Bourguiba and other senior Néo Destour leaders during the spring of 1938, see H. Bourguiba, Ma vie, mon oeuvre (1938–1943) (Paris, 1986), 27–61 passim. 32 Knight (Tunis) to Foreign Office, 23 May 1938, NA, FO 371/21604, C5070/139/17. Ali Ben Ferdjani, accused of firing the first shot, was sentenced by Military Tribunal to twenty years' hard labour. The number of injured was probably far higher as going to hospital meant risking discovery by the police. 33 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 1 December 1938, NA, FO 371/21604, C15039/139/17. Labonne replaced a Popular Front reformer, Armand Guillon. 34 Resident General (Tunis) annual report, Section: ‘État général de l'opinion indigène au début de l'année 1938’, no date, 1939, AN, F60 1426. 35 Ibid. 36 B. Stora, ‘La gauche socialiste, révolutionnaire, et la question du Maghreb au moment du Front populaire (1935–1938)’, Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer, lxx, No. 258 (1983), 59–69; idem, Nationalistes Algériens et Révolutionnaires Français au temps du Front Populaire (Paris, 1987), chapter 2. 37 AN, F60187, Dossier A2, Cabinet, ‘Situation politique et économique des territoires du sud en 1938.’ 38 Sous-préfecture de Sétif, ‘Rapport de quinzaine sur l'état d'esprit des indigènes, période du 5 au 20 janvier 1937’; ‘Rapport de l'administrateur de la commune mixte d'Ain M'Lila’, 10 Sept. 1937, CAOM, G[ouvernement] G[énéral] [d']A[lgérie], 9H29/D1. 39 Direction de la sécurité générale (Algiers) ‘Rapport sur les faits importants intéressant l'ordre et la sécurité. Mois d'août 1937’, CAOM, GGA, 9H32. 40 Cabinet (Algiers), ‘Situation politique indigène de l'Algérie’, 15 Feb. 1939, AN, F60187, Dossier A2. 41 J. McDougall, History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria (Cambridge, 2006), 74–5, 120–6. 42 B. Stora and Z. Daoud, Ferhat Abbas une utopie algérienne (Paris, 1995), 94. 43 Governor-General Le Beau to Camille Chautemps, ‘Evolution de l'opinion indigène’, 25 Sept. 1938, AN, F60 1427, no. 138/CS. 44 M. Touari, ‘Pourquoi le PPA est contre le projet Viollette’, in M. Kaddache, Le Parti du Peuple Algérien 1937–1939. Documents et témoignages pour servir à l'étude du nationalisme algérien (Algiers, 1985), 57–9. 45 Cabinet (Algiers) note, ‘Le PPA et l'annulation de l'élection du conseilleur général Douar’,15 June 1939, CAOM, GGA, 9H18, Surveillance des indigènes, no. 307. 46 Algiers Government General letter to Interior Ministry, ‘Le patriotisme des populations algériennes’, 15 Sept. 1938, AN, F60 1427: Dossiers Chautemps. 47 Governor-General Le Beau to Chautemps, ‘Evolution de l'opinion indigène’, 25 September 1938, AN, F60 1427, no. 138/CS. 48 Le Beau to Chautemps, ‘Opinion publique en Algérie’, 21 Sept. 1938, including an additional memo prepared on 19 Sept.: ‘Attitude de la population indigène en face du danger de conflit armé’, AN, F60 1427, no. 131/CS. 49 Some may bridle at the notion of any ‘human rights’ agenda in the colonial empire, but, on this subject, see A. C. Conklin, ‘Colonialism and human rights, a contradiction in terms? The case of France and West Africa, 1895–1914’, American Historical Review, ciii, No. 2 (1998), 419–42. 50 Governor-General Pierre Pasquier to Ministry of Colonies, ‘Activité du parti nationaliste annamite’, 15 Sept. 1930, CAOM, F[onds] m[inisteriels], Indo[chine], NF/2344, no. 5153; P. Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille. A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940 (Berkeley, 2001), 267–78. Moutet was bitterly opposed by Hanoi Governor René Robin who figured among the scores of reactionary senior colonial officials ‘purged’ by the Popular Front government in 1936. 51 ‘Notes sur les réalisations d'ordre politique du ministère, 1936–7’, CAOM, Marius Moutet Papers, PA28/1/D1, sous-dossier C. 52 Governor-General Pasquier's reports on Communist sedition in Kontum and Haiphong prisons, various dates, 1931–2, CAOM, FM/INDO/NF/2349; Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille, chapters 7–8. 53 ‘Textes et circulaires concernant les problèmes judiciaires coloniaux: Réforme de la Justice, 1936–7’, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/1/D2, sous-dossier A. 54 H. K. Khánh, Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945 (Ithaca, 1982), 211–15; D. G. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945 (Berkeley, 1981), 392–6. 55 Jules Brévié to Ministry of Colonies, 23 April 1937, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/4/Dossier Varenne, sous-dossier 71, no. 1756/SG. 56 ‘Manifestation des ouvriers annamites employés sur les plantations de la Société Michelin’, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/4/Dossier Varenne. 57 Troupes d'Indochine, SR bulletin de renseignements no. 33, 31 July 1937, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/2/D16, no. 682/2/SRM. 58 Cochin-China Governor Pages to Brévié, 14 May 1937, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/4/Dossier Varenne, sous-dossier 71, no 649/C. 59 Brévié to Direction des affaires politiques/3e Bureau, 28 May 1937, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/4/Dossier Varenne, sous-dossier 71, no. 1638. 60 Brévié to Moutet, 18 Aug. 1937, CAOM, Moutet Papers, PA28/4/Dossier Varenne, sous-dossier 72, no. 334/S. 61 Consul H. C. Walsh (Saigon), Report on conditions in Indo-China during Feb. 1939, NA, FO 371/22921, C4684/249/17; Khánh, Vietnamese Communism, 224–6; Marr, Vietnamese Tradition, 388–9. The sentences on La Lutte group members were revoked in 1939. 62 Acting Consul T.C. Sharman (Saigon) to FO, 22 July 1938, NA, FO 371/21590, C8586/8/17. 63 Khánh, Vietnamese Communism, 240–1. 64 Ligue des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, Section de Hanoi, ‘Voeu adopté au cours de la réunion de jeudi, 5 janvier 1939’, Paris, M[inistère des] A[ffaires] E[trangères], série E: Asie, sous-série: Indochine française, vol. 29. 65 Consul Walsh (Saigon) to FO, 24 Nov. 1938, NA, FO 371/21590, C15961/8/17. 66 W. W. Coultas (Saigon), ‘Report on conditions and events in Indochina during February 1938’, 11 March 1938, NA, FO 371/21589, C3114/8/17. 67 Sir J. Cosby (Bangkok) to FO, 5 Sept. 1938, NA, FO 371/21590, C9208/8/17. 68 Consul Sharman (Saigon) to FO, 14 Nov. 1938, NA, FO 371/21590, C13840/8/17. 69 Dreifort, Myopic Grandeur, 139–45. Japan's seizure of Canton in autumn 1938 cut off alternative sources of nationalist supply via Hong Kong, thereby adding to Indochina's strategic importance to both sides in the Sino-Japanese War. 70 The culmination of this inquiry would be Joseph Paul-Boncour's military bill, introduced to Parliament in March 1927, which obliged all French citizens, irrespective of age or sex, to contribute to national defence, whether through military service or strategic employment; see S. Reynolds, France between the Wars. Gender and Politics (London, 1996), 196. Senate opposition to such socialistic economic planning killed the bill in 1928. 71 Philippe Pétain report, ‘Troubles et soulèvements intérieurs en Afrique Occidentale Française pendant la guerre 1914–1918’, 26 March 1925, S[ervice] H[istorique de] [l']A[rmée de] T[erre], Vincennes, 5H6/D2. 72 CSDN, Secrétariat Général, Commission d'études, ‘Examen d'un projet d'“Instruction sur le recrutement et l'emploi de la main d'oeuvre coloniale”’, 30 June 1926, quotes at page 3, MAE, série K, sous-série: Défense nationale, vol. 20, no. 565 DNI. 73 Ibid., 9. 74 M. Thomas, ‘At the heart of things? French imperial defense planning in the late 1930s’, French Historical Studies, xxi, No 2. (1998), 325–61. 75 Commission de l'Algérie, des Colonies et des Protectorats, Séance du 29 March 1939, AN, Assemblée Nationale, XVIème Législature, C15150. 76 M. Michel, ‘“Mémoire officielle”, discours et pratique coloniale. Le 14 juillet et le 11 novembre au Sénégal entre les deux guerres’, Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer, lxxvii, No. 287 (1990), 150–3. 77 Sir R. Campbell (Paris) to FO, 9 Aug. 1939, NA, FO 371/22932, C11165/797/17. 78 Centre d'informations et d'études (Constantine) report, ‘Echos dans les milieux indigènes de la célébration du 14 juillet à Paris’, 19 July 1939, CAOM, GGA, 9H18, no. 1143. 79 EMA Section d'Outre-Mer, ‘Synthèse de renseignements,’ 1 Dec. 1936, SHA, 7N4133; Direction de la sécurité générale (Algiers), ‘Rapport hebdomadaire’, 23 and 30 Sept. 1939, CAOM, GGA, 9H32. 80 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 6 June 1939, NA, FO 371/22920, C8390/226/17. 81 P. C. Sorum, Intellectuals and Decolonization in France (Chapel Hill, 1977), 25. 82 The following section draws heavily on my Empires of Intelligence: Security Services and Colonial Control (Berkeley, 2007), chapter 10. 83 General Blanc to War Ministry, 9 Sept. 1939, SHA, Moscow files, C194/D134. 84 General H. Simon, ‘La leçon d'une mobilisation en Afrique du Nord’, Revue Française d'Outre-Mer, dcclxii (Jan. 1939). 85 DST, D[irection de la] S[urveillance du] T[erritoire] Algérie, ‘Rapport hebdomadaire de la répercussion de la situation internationale sur les populations algériennes’, 4 Oct. 1938, SHA, Moscow, C280/D140, no. 509. 86 ‘L'Afrique du Nord et la Guerre’, 215–19. 87 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 7 September 1939, NA, FO 371/22920, C13153/226/17; Section d'études (Algiers), ‘État d'esprit des indigènes en Algérie pendant la guerre 1914–1918’, SHA, Moscow, C223/D122, no. 5535/G. 88 Divisional commissioner (Algiers), ‘Rapport: mobilisation générale’, 2 Sept. 1939, CAOM, Algiers department files, F111/D1, no. 8045. 89 Direction de la sécurité générale (Algiers), ‘Rapport hebdomadaire’, 16 Sept. 1939, CAOM, GGA, 9H32. 90 SEA (Algiers), ‘Renseignement – Algérie, mobilisation et état d'esprit des indigènes en Kabylie’, 29 Sept. 1939, SHA, Moscow, C280/D140, no. 4365/B. 91 Direction de la sécurité générale (Algiers), ‘Rapport hebdomadaire’, 23 and 30 Sept. 1939, CAOM, GGA, 9H32. 92 Direction de la sécurité générale (Algiers), ‘Rapport hebdomadaire,’ 10 Oct. 1939, CAOM, GGA, 9H32. PPA leader Messali Hadj was then under house arrest at his brother-in-law, Mohamed Mamchaoui's home in Tlemcen. 93 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 22 Sept. 1939, FO 371/22920, C15212/226/17. 94 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 3 Oct. 1939, NA, FO 371/22920, C16691/226/17. 95 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 31 Oct. 1939, NA, FO 371/22920, C17715/226/17. 96 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 3 Oct. 1939, NA, FO 371/22920, C16691/226/17. 97 For parallels with 1917, see L. V. Smith, ‘“War and Politics”: the French Army mutinies of 1917,’ War in History, ii, No. 2 (1995), 180–201. 98 Knight (Tunis) to FO, 3 Oct. 1939, NA, FO 371/22920, C15835/226/17. White troops restored order at Kairaoun, killing three Arab soldiers and wounding a further ten. 99 Phipps (Paris) to FO, 22 Oct. 1939, NA, FO 371/22932, C17126/797/17. 100 Campbell (Paris) to FO, 11 Nov. 1939, NA, FO 371/22932, C18355/797/17. Mandel made similar claims a month later in a lengthy article, ‘L'Heure de l'Empire’, in Le Monde Colonial Illustré, no. 186 (Déc. 1938), 221. 101 Secrétariat d'état à la guerre (Vichy), ‘Note sur la participation à la campagne 1939–40 des unités sénégalaises’, 20 Feb. 1941, SHA, 9N268: Troupes coloniales. 102 Commission de l'Algérie, des Colonies et des Protectorats, séance du 20 Séptembre 1939, AN, XVIème Législature, C15150. New sub-committees included a study commission on economic mobilization and a military manpower committee. 103 Governor Antonetti to Colonies, 19 March 1931, CAOM, GGAEF, 1D6, no. 326; J. Guyer, ‘Head tax, social structure and rural incomes in Cameroon, 1922–1937’, Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 20 (1980), 305–22; W. D. Swearingen, ‘In pursuit of the granary of Rome: France's wheat policy in Morocco, 1915–1931’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, xvii, No. 185 (1985), 350–1; P. Brocheux, ‘Le prolétariat des plantations d'hévéas au Vietnam méridional: aspects sociaux et politiques (1927–1937)’, Le Mouvement Social, xl, No. 1 (1975), 55–87; I. Nørlund, ‘Rice and the colonial lobby. The economic crisis in French Indo-China in the 1920s and 1930s’, in P. Boomgaard and I. Brown (eds), Weathering the Storm. The Economies of South East Asia in the 1930s Depression (Singapore, 2000), 201–11. 104 M. Margairez, L'état, les finances et l'économie: Histoire d'une conversion, tome I: 1932–1952 (Paris, 1991), 478–85. Additional informationNotes on contributorsMartin ThomasMy thanks to the Leverhulme Trust for funding research for this article. I am also grateful to the journal's anonymous readers for their helpful comments. Finally, thanks to the International History seminar at London's Institute for Historical Research where an earlier version of the article was presented.