The Changes of Epidermal Calcium Gradient and Transitional Cells after Prolonged Occlusion Following Tape Stripping in the Murine Epidermis
1999; Elsevier BV; Volume: 113; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1046/j.1523-1747.1999.00650.x
ISSN1523-1747
AutoresSung Ku Ahn, Sang Min Hwang, Shao Jun Jiang, Eung Ho Choi, Seung Hun Lee,
Tópico(s)Essential Oils and Antimicrobial Activity
ResumoDisruption of the epidermal permeability barrier causes an immediate loss of the calcium gradient, and barrier recovery is parallel with the restoration of the calcium gradient in the epidermis. Artificial restoration of the barrier function by occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane abrogate the expected increase in lipid synthesis and retard the barrier recovery, as well as block the normalization of the epidermal calcium gradient. To clarify the long-term effects of occlusion after acute barrier perturbation, we studied the calcium distribution and epidermal keratinocytes response after occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane immediately following tape stripping in the murine epidermis. Acute barrier disruption caused an immediate depletion of most calcium ions in the upper epidermis, obliterating the normal calcium gradient. When the skin barrier function was artificially corrected by occlusion, the return of calcium ions to the epidermis was blocked. After 2 h of air exposure or occlusion, the density of epidermal calcium precipitates remained negligible. The transitional cell layers appeared with occlusion, but not or negligibly with air exposure. By 6 h though, calcium precipitates could be seen, the density of the calcium precipitates with occlusion was more sparse than with air exposure. With the air exposure, the thickness of the stratum corneum had normalized and the calcium gradient nearly recovered to normal after 24 h. The longer the occlusion period, the greater was the increase of transitional cells. By 60 h of occlusion, the thickness of the stratum corneum had increased and the transitional cell layers had disappeared, in parallel with the calcium gradient which was almost normalized. These results show that prolonged occlusion of tape-stripped epidermis induced transitional cells and delayed the restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient, the stratum corneum was then restored, transitional cells having disappeared, in parallel with normalization of the epidermal calcium gradient. Disruption of the epidermal permeability barrier causes an immediate loss of the calcium gradient, and barrier recovery is parallel with the restoration of the calcium gradient in the epidermis. Artificial restoration of the barrier function by occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane abrogate the expected increase in lipid synthesis and retard the barrier recovery, as well as block the normalization of the epidermal calcium gradient. To clarify the long-term effects of occlusion after acute barrier perturbation, we studied the calcium distribution and epidermal keratinocytes response after occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane immediately following tape stripping in the murine epidermis. Acute barrier disruption caused an immediate depletion of most calcium ions in the upper epidermis, obliterating the normal calcium gradient. When the skin barrier function was artificially corrected by occlusion, the return of calcium ions to the epidermis was blocked. After 2 h of air exposure or occlusion, the density of epidermal calcium precipitates remained negligible. The transitional cell layers appeared with occlusion, but not or negligibly with air exposure. By 6 h though, calcium precipitates could be seen, the density of the calcium precipitates with occlusion was more sparse than with air exposure. With the air exposure, the thickness of the stratum corneum had normalized and the calcium gradient nearly recovered to normal after 24 h. The longer the occlusion period, the greater was the increase of transitional cells. By 60 h of occlusion, the thickness of the stratum corneum had increased and the transitional cell layers had disappeared, in parallel with the calcium gradient which was almost normalized. These results show that prolonged occlusion of tape-stripped epidermis induced transitional cells and delayed the restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient, the stratum corneum was then restored, transitional cells having disappeared, in parallel with normalization of the epidermal calcium gradient. osmium tetroxide stratum basale stratum corneum stratum granulosum stratum spinosum transepidermal water loss An important function of skin is to serve as a barrier and thus provide protection from the external environment. This permeability barrier resides in the extracellular lipid-enriched membranes of the stratum corneum (SC). Acute disruption of the epidermal permeability barrier by organic solvents, detergents, or tape stripping initiates a homeostatic repair response that rapidly restores barrier function to normal (Grubauer et al., 1987Grubauer G. Feingold K.R. Elias P.M. The relationship of epidermal lipogenesis to cutaneous barrier function.J Lipid Res. 1987; 28: 746-752Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar;Proksch et al., 1993Proksch E. Holleran W.M. Menon G.K. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Barrier function regulates epidermal lipid and DNA synthesis.Br J Dermatol. 1993; 128: 473-482Crossref PubMed Scopus (193) Google Scholar). These repair responses include the rapid secretion of preformed lamellar bodies by the stratum granulosum (SG) cells, the accelerated formation of new lamellar bodies with further secretion (Menon et al., 1992bMenon G.K. Feingold K.R. Elias P.M. The lamellar body secretory response to barrier disruption.J Invest Dermatol. 1992; 98: 279-289Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar), an increase in epidermal cholesterol, fatty acid, and sphingolipid synthesis (Feingold, 1991Feingold K.R. The regulation and role of epidermal lipid synthesis.Adv Lipid Res. 1991; 24: 57-82Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), and extracellular reorganizing of secreted lamellar body-derived lipids, leading to the restoration of lipid-enriched membranes in the SC interstices in parallel with barrier recovery (Holleran et al., 1993Holleran W.M. Takagi Y. Menon G.K. Legler G. Feingold K.R. Elias P.M. Processing of epidermal glucosylceramides is required for optimal mammalian cutaneous permeability barrier function.J Clin Invest. 1993; 91: 1656-1664Crossref PubMed Scopus (226) Google Scholar). Prior studies have demonstrated that there is a calcium gradient within the normal epidermis, from a low level of calcium ions in the basal and spinous layers, followed by a progressive increase with a level of calcium ions reaching its maximal density within the outer SG (Menon et al., 1985Menon G.K. Grayson S. Elias P.M. Ionic calcium reservoirs in mammalian epidermis: ultrastructural localization by ion-capture cytochemistry.J Invest Dermatol. 1985; 84: 508-512Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar,Menon et al., 1992aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Lee S.H. Feingold K.R. Localization of calcium in murine epidermis following disruption and repair of the permeability barrier.Cell Tissue Res. 1992; 270: 503-512Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar;Menon and Elias, 1992Menon G.K. Elias P.M. Ultrastructural localization of calcium in psoriasis and human epidermis.Arch Dermatol. 1992; 127: 57-63Crossref Scopus (162) Google Scholar;Lee et al., 1998Lee S.H. Choi E.H. Feingold K.R. Jiang S. Ahn S.K. Iontophoresis itself on hairless mouse skin induces the loss of the epidermal calcium gradient without skin barrier impairment.J Invest Dermatol. 1998; 111: 39-43Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar). Disruption of the epidermal permeability barrier causes an immediate loss of the calcium gradient, and barrier recovery is parallel to the restoration of the calcium gradient in the epidermis (Menon et al., 1992aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Lee S.H. Feingold K.R. Localization of calcium in murine epidermis following disruption and repair of the permeability barrier.Cell Tissue Res. 1992; 270: 503-512Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar). Furthermore, in chronic forms of barrier abnormality, such as in essential fatty acid deficient mice, topical lovastatin treated mice, and psoriasis, the epidermal calcium gradient is abnormal (Menon and Elias, 1992Menon G.K. Elias P.M. Ultrastructural localization of calcium in psoriasis and human epidermis.Arch Dermatol. 1992; 127: 57-63Crossref Scopus (162) Google Scholar;Menon et al., 1994aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Integrity of the permeability barrier is crucial for maintenance of the epidermal calcium gradient.Br J Dermatol. 1994; 130: 139-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar). These studies suggest that the calcium gradient in the epidermis is closely linked to the presence of a normal permeability barrier and appears to play an important part in barrier homeostasis. In addition, studies have shown that after acute barrier disruption, artificial restoration of the barrier function by occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane abrogate the expected increase in lipid synthesis and retard the barrier recovery (Menon et al., 1992bMenon G.K. Feingold K.R. Elias P.M. The lamellar body secretory response to barrier disruption.J Invest Dermatol. 1992; 98: 279-289Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar;Jiang et al., 1998Jiang S.J. Koo S.W. Lee S.H. The morphologic changes in lamellar bodies and intercorneocyte lipids after tape stripping and occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane.Arch Dermatol Res. 1998; 290: 145-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar), as well as block the normalization of the epidermal calcium gradient (Menon et al., 1994bMenon G.K. Price L.F. Bommannan B. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Selective obliteration of the epidermal calcium gradient leads to enhanced lamellar body secretion.J Invest Dermatol. 1994; 102: 789-795Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). A recent study has shown that occlusion after barrier perturbation led to a slight decrease in the expression of the hyperproliferation-associated keratins K6 and K16, and a further extension of involucrin staining to the lower spinous layers (Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage et al., 1998Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage S. Aschauer H. Schmook F.P. Jensen J.M. Meingassner J.G. Proksch E. Expression of epidermal keratins and the cornified envelope protein involucrin is influenced by permeability barrier disruption.J Invest Dermatol. 1998; 111: 517-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar). Such changes in the calcium content of the epidermis may induce changes in the epidermal proliferation and/or alter epidermal differentiation. In vitro study showed that low calcium concentrations induce keratinocyte growth, and a high calcium concentration leads to differentiation (Hennings et al., 1980Hennings H. Micheal D. Cheng D. Steinert P. Holbrook K. Yuspa S.H. Calcium regulation of growth and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells in culture.Cell. 1980; 19: 245-254Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1450) Google Scholar). There has been no definite in vivo study demonstrating these results, however. In this study, we investigated the calcium distribution and epidermal keratinocyte response after prolonged occlusion, up to 60 h, with a water vapor-impermeable membrane following tape stripping in the murine epidermis. Hairless male mice, 8–12 wk old with a baseline transepidermal water loss (TEWL) between 0.5 and 0.8 mg per cm2 per h, were used for this study. All animal experiments complied with the Principles of Laboratory Animal Care (NIH publication 85–23, revised 1985). Under general anesthesia with 4% chloral hydrate by intraperitoneal injection, groups (n = 5 in each group) were repeatedly tape-stripped on one flank with cellophane tape (scotch). The procedures were terminated when the TEWL reached 4 mg per cm2 per h. TEWL determinations were performed with an electrolytic moisture analyzer (MEECO, Warrington, PA). After barrier disruption, animals were either air exposed or wrapped in a tightly fitting water vapor-impermeable membrane (one finger of a Latex glove). Skin specimens were taken at 15 min after tape stripping, and then at 2, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60 h after air exposure or occlusion, respectively. All biopsied specimens were fixed in 10% formalin. After routine processing and embedding in paraffin, 5 μm thick sections were cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Under light microscope, we evaluated changes in the epidermal layers at each time interval. Specimens were processed in routine osmium tetroxide (OsO4) fixation and ion capture cytochemistry (Menon et al., 1985Menon G.K. Grayson S. Elias P.M. Ionic calcium reservoirs in mammalian epidermis: ultrastructural localization by ion-capture cytochemistry.J Invest Dermatol. 1985; 84: 508-512Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar). Briefly, the samples were minced very finely and immediately immersed in a cold fixative which contained 2% glutaraldehyde, 2% formaldehyde, 90 mM potassium oxalate, and 1.4% sucrose, pH 7.4 and fixed overnight in ice-cold fixative in the dark, postfixed in 1% OsO4, containing 2% potassium pyroantimonate, held on ice in the dark for 2 h, rinsed in cold distilled water (adjusted to pH 10 with potassium hydroxide), and routinely processed and embedded in an Epon-epoxy resin mixture. Ultrathin 60–80 nm sections were double-stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate, and examined with a Philips CM10 electron microscope operating at 80 kV. The layers of epidermis were gradually increased up to 60 h of occlusion. The number of layers of SC for normal hairless mice was two or three (mean, 2.5), the number of layers of SG was one (mean, 1.0), and the number of layers of stratum spinosum (SS) was one or two (mean, 1.2). Immediately after tape-stripping, the superficial SC disappeared. Epidermal changes were found from 6 h after tape stripping in air exposure or occlusion and then nearly normalized at 24–36 h in air exposure, but with a gradual increase up to 60 h in occlusion. The SC was seen after 2 h in air exposure and in occlusion. After 12 h, the SC was nearly normalized in air exposure. Between 6 h and 24 h, there was focal parakeratosis in the SC in air exposure. A gradual increase was noted in occlusion, however. After 48 and 60 h of occlusion, the SC was maximally thickened approximately 2-fold in comparison with normal. The SG first increased focally after 6 h in air exposure and in occlusion. The SG and SS normalized at 36 h of air exposure. The SG and SS gradually thickened up to 60 h with occlusion (SG, two to four layers; SS, three to six layers) (Figure 1, Table 1), however.Table 1Summary of the thickness of SC, SG, and SS in tape-stripping and tape-stripping followed by occlusion with water vapor-impermeable membraneaTen points were selected at random and the layers of epidermis determined by light microscopic observation. Values are mean, n = 5. NL, normal; TS15, 15 min after tape stripping; SB, stratum basale.NLTS15Time2 h6 h12 h24 h36 h48 h60 hAir exposureSC2.5011.82.33.12.72.62.8SG1.01.001.52.02.01.21.21.1SS1.21.342.42.72.52.01.71.4OcclusionSC2.5081.51.92.33.03.24.3SG1.01.001.21.41.62.3bSignificantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test.2.3bSignificantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test.2.6bSignificantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test.SS1.21.331.41.82.33.1bSignificantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test.3.4bSignificantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test.4.4bSignificantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test.a Ten points were selected at random and the layers of epidermis determined by light microscopic observation. Values are mean, n = 5. NL, normal; TS15, 15 min after tape stripping; SB, stratum basale.b Significantly different from air exposure (p < 0.01). The significance of differences were determined using Student's t test. Open table in a new tab Epidermal calcium gradient after tape-stripping was restored by 24 h. In normal hairless mice, the calcium distribution pattern observed was similar to that reported previously (Menon et al., 1985Menon G.K. Grayson S. Elias P.M. Ionic calcium reservoirs in mammalian epidermis: ultrastructural localization by ion-capture cytochemistry.J Invest Dermatol. 1985; 84: 508-512Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar,Menon et al., 1992aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Lee S.H. Feingold K.R. Localization of calcium in murine epidermis following disruption and repair of the permeability barrier.Cell Tissue Res. 1992; 270: 503-512Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar). As shown in Figure 2, the basal and spinous layers contain few calcium precipitates, but there is a progressive increase towards the outer epidermis, reaching the highest density within the outer most part of the granular layer. The calcium precipitates appeared to be sequestered within the SC–SG junction and the SC was free of calcium precipitates. Barrier disruption by tape stripping caused an immediate disappearance of the epidermal calcium gradient (Figure 3). Immediately after tape stripping, a marked depletion of both intracellular and extracellular calcium ions was evident in the upper epidermis when compared with the normal epidermis. Moreover, calcium precipitates were seen within the SC. This observation demonstrates that barrier disruption by tape stripping is accompanied by the loss of the calcium reservoir from the SG. Figure 4 shows the restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient with the lapse of time. By 2 h after tape stripping, the extracellular and cytosolic compartments are still largely depleted of calcium precipitates (Figure 4a). By 6 h after tape stripping, a further increase in calcium precipitates was evident both in the extracellular and cytosolic compartments (Figure 4b), resulting in the partial restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient. Between 12 h (Figure 4c) and 24 h (Figure 4d) after tape stripping, during the barrier recovery, epidermal calcium distribution almost resembles normal, with the upper SG cells displaying abundant cytosolic calcium precipitates in comparison with the amounts in the lower epidermal cells. These results suggest that epidermal calcium gradient was largely restored by 24 h. Occlusion in the tape-stripped epidermis induced the appearance of transitional cells As described above and previously (Menon et al., 1992aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Lee S.H. Feingold K.R. Localization of calcium in murine epidermis following disruption and repair of the permeability barrier.Cell Tissue Res. 1992; 270: 503-512Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar,Menon et al., 1994aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Integrity of the permeability barrier is crucial for maintenance of the epidermal calcium gradient.Br J Dermatol. 1994; 130: 139-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar), acute barrier disruption caused an immediate depletion of most calcium ions in the upper epidermis, obliterating the normal calcium gradient. Restoration of the permeability barrier with occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane, however, prevented the return of the calcium gradients. Table 2 provides the distribution of epidermal calcium ions and transitional cells in tape stripping and tape stripping followed by occlusion with water vapor-impermeable membrane. By 2 h of occlusion, the density of the epidermal calcium precipitates remained negligible, and transitional cell layers were found (Figure 5). By 6 h of occlusion, though, the calcium precipitates were again seen, but the density of the calcium precipitates (Figure 6) was less than the air-exposed epidermis (Figure 4b). Moreover, the transitional cell layers gradually increased (Figure 6, inset). Between 12 h and 24 h of occlusion, the increase of the transitional cell layers was more apparent, and there were numerous intracellular vesicles which contained the calcium precipitates.Table 2Summary of epidermal calcium distribution and transitional cells in tape-stripping and tape-stripping followed by occlusion with water vapor-impermeable membraneaSemiquantitative scale ranges from 0 (absence of calcium precipitates) to density ++++ (maximum density). NL, normal; TS15, 15 min after tape stripping; SB, stratum basale.NLTS15Air exposureOcclusion2 h6 h12 h24 h36 h48 h60 h2 h6 h12 h24 h36 h48 h60 hCalciumSC0++000000++++++0SG++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++SS++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++SB+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Transitional cell–––±±––––+++++++++++–a Semiquantitative scale ranges from 0 (absence of calcium precipitates) to density ++++ (maximum density). NL, normal; TS15, 15 min after tape stripping; SB, stratum basale. Open table in a new tab Figure 6Electron micrographs after 6 h of occlusion following tape stripping. Accumulated calcium aggregates are still visible in the intercellular domains of the SC (arrows). Inset shows the increased transitional cell layers. Inset, OsO4 postfixation. Scale bar: 2 μm.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) By 36 h of occlusion, the thickness of the transitional cell layers had reached a peak. They still contained numerous intracellular vacuoles and undegenerated nuclei (Figure 7), and the calcium precipitates were mostly distributed within the transitional cell layers extracellularly (Figure 7, inset). With 48 h of occlusion, the transitional cell layers became more compact and the calcium precipitates gradually accumulated within the upper epidermis (Figure 8). By 60 h of occlusion, the SC had increased and the transitional cell layers had disappeared, in parallel with the nearly normalized epidermal calcium gradient (Figure 9). Lipid droplets, however, still resided within the corneocyte (Figure 9, inset). These results show that occlusion in tape-stripped epidermis induced the presence of transitional cells within the epidermis and delayed the restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient.Figure 8Electron micrographs after 48 h of occlusion following tape stripping. After 48 h of occlusion, the transitional cell layers became more compact and accumulated calcium precipitates were seen. Inset, more detail of transitional cell layers. Scale bar: 2 μm. Inset, OsO4 postfixation, scale bar: 1 μm.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT)Figure 9Electron micrographs after 60 h of occlusion following tape stripping. After 60 h of occlusion, the epidermal calcium gradient nearly is normalized. Inset shows the lipid droplets (arrows) within the corneocytes. Inset, OsO4 postfixation. Scale bar: 2 μm.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) Prior studies have shown a characteristic calcium distribution pattern within the epidermis (Menon et al., 1985Menon G.K. Grayson S. Elias P.M. Ionic calcium reservoirs in mammalian epidermis: ultrastructural localization by ion-capture cytochemistry.J Invest Dermatol. 1985; 84: 508-512Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar;Menon and Elias, 1992Menon G.K. Elias P.M. Ultrastructural localization of calcium in psoriasis and human epidermis.Arch Dermatol. 1992; 127: 57-63Crossref Scopus (162) Google Scholar). In brief, extracellular calcium content is low in the SB and SS layers, with a gradual increase from the inner to the outer layers of the SG layers. Extracellular calcium ions in the epidermis regulates lipid synthesis, lamellar body secretion, and recovery of epidermal barrier function following experimental barrier disruption (Lee et al., 1992Lee S.H. Elias P.M. Proksch E. Menon G.K. Man M.Q. Feingold K.R. Calcium and potassium are important regulators of barrier homeostasis in murine epidermis.J Clin Invest. 1992; 89: 530-538Crossref PubMed Scopus (177) Google Scholar,Lee et al., 1994Lee S.H. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Mauro T. A role for ions in barrier recovery after acute pertubation.J Invest Dermatol. 1994; 102: 976-979Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar;Menon et al., 1992aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Lee S.H. Feingold K.R. Localization of calcium in murine epidermis following disruption and repair of the permeability barrier.Cell Tissue Res. 1992; 270: 503-512Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar,Menon et al., 1994bMenon G.K. Price L.F. Bommannan B. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Selective obliteration of the epidermal calcium gradient leads to enhanced lamellar body secretion.J Invest Dermatol. 1994; 102: 789-795Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Furthermore, calcium as an internal messenger, translating extracellular signals to the cell, plays an important part in regulating proliferation and differentiation in the epidermis (Hennings et al., 1980Hennings H. Micheal D. Cheng D. Steinert P. Holbrook K. Yuspa S.H. Calcium regulation of growth and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells in culture.Cell. 1980; 19: 245-254Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1450) Google Scholar;Fairley, 1988Fairley J.A. Calcium and the skin.Arch Dermatol. 1988; 124: 443-444Crossref Scopus (9) Google Scholar). In vitro extracellular calcium ions are central regulator of keratinocyte differentiation. Low calcium concentrations stimulate proliferation, whereas high calcium concentrations inhibit proliferation and enhance differentiation (Hennings et al., 1980Hennings H. Micheal D. Cheng D. Steinert P. Holbrook K. Yuspa S.H. Calcium regulation of growth and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells in culture.Cell. 1980; 19: 245-254Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1450) Google Scholar;Boyce and Ham, 1983Boyce S.T. Ham R.G. Calcium regulated differentiation of normal human epidermal keratinocytes in chemically defined clonal culture and serum-free serial culture.J Invest Dermatol. 1983; 83: 33-40Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (917) Google Scholar;Yuspa et al., 1989Yuspa S.H. Kilkenny A.E. Steinert P.M. Roop D.R. Expression of murine epidermal differentiation markers is tightly regulated by restricted extracellular calcium concentrations in vitro.J Cell Biol. 1989; 109: 1207-1217Crossref PubMed Scopus (489) Google Scholar). Increased extracellular calcium ions stimulates K1/10, involucrin, loricrin, and transglutaminase I synthesis and coordinate the expression of differentiation-specific keratins (Eckert et al., 1997Eckert R.L. Crish J.F. Robinson N.A. The epidermal keratinocyte as a model for the study of gene regulation and cell differentiation.Physiol Rev. 1997; 77: 397-424Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar). Other processes of late keratinocyte differentiation and programmed cell death also depend on raised calcium concentrations (Marthinuss et al., 1995Marthinuss J. Andrade-gordon P. Seiberg M. A secreted serine protease can induce apoptosis in Pam 212 keratinocytes.Cell Growth Different. 1995; 6: 807-816PubMed Google Scholar;Eckert et al., 1997Eckert R.L. Crish J.F. Robinson N.A. The epidermal keratinocyte as a model for the study of gene regulation and cell differentiation.Physiol Rev. 1997; 77: 397-424Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar). Recent study in hairless mouse skin have shown that barrier perturbation which could induce the deprivation of upper epidermal calcium ions leads to expression of keratins K6, K16, and K17, and to a premature expression of involucrin (Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage et al., 1998Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage S. Aschauer H. Schmook F.P. Jensen J.M. Meingassner J.G. Proksch E. Expression of epidermal keratins and the cornified envelope protein involucrin is influenced by permeability barrier disruption.J Invest Dermatol. 1998; 111: 517-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar). In addition, in psoriasis, a chronic model for barrier disruption, ion capture cytochemistry has demonstrated that the epidermal calcium distribution is markedly altered in involved skin, but unchanged in the uninvolved epidermis (Menon and Elias, 1992Menon G.K. Elias P.M. Ultrastructural localization of calcium in psoriasis and human epidermis.Arch Dermatol. 1992; 127: 57-63Crossref Scopus (162) Google Scholar). Any experimental study artificially inducing prolonged calcium deprivation within in vivo animal epidermis, however, has not been performed. The transitional cells, possess morphologic characteristics of both granular and cornified cells, are seen sporadically in sections of the human epidermis (Holbrook, 1989Holbrook K.A. Biologic structure and function: perspective on morphologic approaches to the study of the granular layer keratinocytes.J Invest Dermatol. 1989; 92: 84s-104sPubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar). Observation of normal mouse epidermis, shows that it is similar to human epidermis. Moreover, ultrastructural studies of this layer have shown that these cells contain an increased number of lysosomes, autophagosomes containing lysed cell contents, aggregated keratohyalin granules, lipid accumulation, perinuclear clearing of the cytoplasm, and a cornified cell envelope (Brody, 1959Brody I. An ultrastructural study on the role of the keratohyalin granule in the keratinization process.J Ultrastruct Mol Struct Res. 1959; 3: 84-104Crossref Scopus (68) Google Scholar;Lavker and Matoltsy, 1970Lavker R.M. Matoltsy A.G. Formation of horny cells: the fate of cell organelles and differentiation products in terminal epithelium.J Cell Biol. 1970; 144: 501-512Crossref Scopus (99) Google Scholar). Different images of their structure in transitional cells suggest that they go through a phase of condensation and cessation of RNA synthesis. This is followed by degradation of the nucleoprotein, leaving nuclear remnants in the form of dense fibrillar material that is deposited outside of the nuclear envelope, presumably having been transported to that site (Karasek, 1988Karasek J. Nuclear morphology of transitional keratinocytes in normal human epidermis.J Invest Dermatol. 1988; 91: 243-246Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Many lipid droplets or vacuoles of SC, another indicator of incomplete keratinocyte differentiation in vitro (Vicanova et al., 1998Vicanova J. Boelsma E. Mommaas M. et al.Normalization of epidermal calcium distribution profile in reconstructed human epidermis is related to improvement of terminal. differentiation and stratum corneum barrier formation.J Invest Dermatol. 1998; 111: 97-106Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar) and failure of lamellar body secretion (Ghadially et al., 1996Ghadially R. Reed J.T. Elias P.M. Stratum corneum structure and function correlates with phenotype in psoriasis.J Invest Dermatol. 1996; 107: 558-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar), were also seen in our electron microscopic examination. At 48 and 60 h after occlusion with a fully developed SC and SG and normalized calcium gradient, transitional cells disappeared abruptly. We believe that the appearance of transitional cells closely related to the change of calcium distribution as in vitro keratinocyte. Tape stripping is known to remove layers of the superficial SC and causes a barrier defect. It leads to hyperproliferation without severe inflammation (Rijzewijk et al., 1988Rijzewijk J.J. Boezeman J.B.M. Bauer F.W. Synchronized growth in human epidermis following tape stripping: its implication for cell kinetic studies.Cell Tissue Kinet. 1988; 21: 227-229PubMed Google Scholar). Morphologic studies that have been performed on rabbit (Komatsu and Suzuki, 1982Komatsu H. Suzuki M. Studies on the regeneration of the skin barrier and the changes in 32P incorporation into the epidermis after stripping.Br J Dermatol. 1982; 106: 551-560Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar) and guinea pig (Braun-Falco and Burg, 1971Braun-Falco O. Burg G. Dynamics of skin reaction following horn layer stripping. Histochemical and cytochemical studies on guinea pig ears.Arch Dermatol Forsch. 1971; 241: 1-14Crossref Scopus (5) Google Scholar) showed the appearance of parakeratotic cells and the occurrence of hyperplasia after tape stripping in the air-exposed model. In this study, we demonstrated that the transitional cell layers appeared with occlusion after tape stripping but not in the air-exposed model. The appearance of parakeratotic cells and transitional cells is believed to be a sign of hyperplasia. This discrepancy in the appearance of parakeratotic cells and transitional cells still remain unclear. We believe, however, it is caused by the process of regeneration of epidermis with time, which varies between species. Morphologic observations in rabbits after tape stripping showed that a parakeratotic layers was present at 3 d, when the permeability was markedly reduced, and distinct hyperplasia was observed at 5–7 d (Komatsu and Suzuki, 1982Komatsu H. Suzuki M. Studies on the regeneration of the skin barrier and the changes in 32P incorporation into the epidermis after stripping.Br J Dermatol. 1982; 106: 551-560Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar). Hairless mice, however, showed that the increased TEWL was reversed and barrier repair was complete within 24–36 h (Jiang et al., 1998Jiang S.J. Koo S.W. Lee S.H. The morphologic changes in lamellar bodies and intercorneocyte lipids after tape stripping and occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane.Arch Dermatol Res. 1998; 290: 145-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar). After tape stripping barrier recovery was accompanied by restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient, and this event also involved the process of keratinocyte differentiation leading ultimately to keratinization. Whereas, occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane, immediately after tape stripping blocked not only the barrier recovery but also the restoration of the epidermal calcium gradient (Grubauer et al., 1989Grubauer G. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Transepidermal water loss; the signal for recovery of barrier structure and function.J Lipid Res. 1989; 30: 323-333Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar;Menon et al., 1994aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Integrity of the permeability barrier is crucial for maintenance of the epidermal calcium gradient.Br J Dermatol. 1994; 130: 139-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar), so this change of calcium ions within the epidermis may induce transitional cells. Between 2 and 36 h of occlusion, the transitional cell layers gradually increased as the occlusion time became prolonged. Thus, it is possible that the alterations in the epidermal calcium gradient induced by the occlusion could change the epidermal proliferation and delay epidermal differentiation as in the in vitro study (Hennings et al., 1980Hennings H. Micheal D. Cheng D. Steinert P. Holbrook K. Yuspa S.H. Calcium regulation of growth and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells in culture.Cell. 1980; 19: 245-254Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1450) Google Scholar). One interesting question is what induces transitional cells in vivo. The evidence suggests that calcium is the most important factor (Hennings et al., 1980Hennings H. Micheal D. Cheng D. Steinert P. Holbrook K. Yuspa S.H. Calcium regulation of growth and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells in culture.Cell. 1980; 19: 245-254Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1450) Google Scholar). In addition, a high concentration of calcium ions in the reconstructed epidermis is closely related to deregulation of terminal differentiation (Vicanova et al., 1998Vicanova J. Boelsma E. Mommaas M. et al.Normalization of epidermal calcium distribution profile in reconstructed human epidermis is related to improvement of terminal. differentiation and stratum corneum barrier formation.J Invest Dermatol. 1998; 111: 97-106Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar). The reconstructed epidermis cultured in serum-containing medium show incompletely cornified corneocytes containing remnants of cytoplasmic organelles, an extremely thick and compact SC, a high number of desmosomes preserved up to the outer SC, and a failure of lamellar body delivery and lipid bilayer arrangement, and also a poor barrier function (Fartasch and Ponec, 1994Fartasch M. Ponec M. Improved barrier structure formation in air-exposed human keratinocyte culture systems.J Invest Dermatol. 1994; 102: 366-374Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). The proliferation of the epidermis after occlusion following barrier disruption is of considerable interest, as it provides some insight into the biochemical and physiologic changes that may be taking place in the epidermis during occlusion. After tape stripping, the keratinocytes became activated and the epidermis showed upregulation of K16 expression. Keratinocyte proliferation was accompanied by production of a specific profile of cytokine, adhesion molecule mRNA, and proteins (Nickoloff and Naidu, 1994Nickoloff B.J. Naidu Y. Perturbation of epidermal barrier function correlates with initiation of cytokine cascade in human skin.J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994; 130: 535-546Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (408) Google Scholar). Occlusion neither decreased cytokine release after barrier disruption nor prevented the epidermal hyperplasia induced by repeated barrier disruption (Denda et al., 1996Denda M. Wood L.C. Emami S. Calhoun C. Brown B.E. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. The epidermal hyperplasia associated with repeated barrier disruption by acetone treatment or tape stripping cannot be attributed to increased water loss.Arch Dermatol Res. 1996; 288: 230-238Crossref PubMed Scopus (124) Google Scholar). We reported that the loss of the epidermal calcium by iontophoresis without skin barrier impairment induced lamellar body secretion (Lee et al., 1998Lee S.H. Choi E.H. Feingold K.R. Jiang S. Ahn S.K. Iontophoresis itself on hairless mouse skin induces the loss of the epidermal calcium gradient without skin barrier impairment.J Invest Dermatol. 1998; 111: 39-43Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar), which meant an increase in epidermal lipid synthesis. We investigated, therefore, whether repeated deprivation of only the epidermal calcium induced epidermal proliferation, but could find no epidermal proliferation. 1Choi EH, Ahn SK, Jiang SJ, Lee SH: The effect of repeated iontophoresis on the epidermal barrier of hairless mice. J Invest Dermatol 110:675 1998 (abstr.) Glucosylceramides, delivered to the SC interstices by lamellar body secretion, are enzymatically hydrolyzed to ceramides, which are major components of the lipid lamellar bilayers (Hanley et al., 1997Hanley K. Jiang Y. Holleran W.M. Elias P.M. Williams M.L. Feingold K.R. Glucosylceramide metabolism is regulated during normal and hormonally stimulated epidermal barrier development in the rat.J Lipid Res. 1997; 38: 576-584Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Ceramides is known to inhibit cell proliferation and induce epidermal differentiation in vitro (Hannun, 1994Hannun Y.A. The sphingomyelin cycle and the second messenger function of ceramide.J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 3125-3128Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). From this result we suggest that occlusion after barrier perturbation may inhibit epidermal lipid synthesis including glucosylceramides indicated indirectly by decreased lamellar body secretion. The decreased glucosylceramides may not inhibit epidermal proliferation or control epidermal differentiation. Repeated calcium deprivation by iontophoresis, however, may induce repeated lamellar body secretion, so glucosylceramides in the epidermis which inhibits proliferation may increase in a state of repeated calcium loss. In our ultrastructural observation, the epidermal calcium gradient was nearly normalized by 48 and 60 h of occlusion. Our observations suggest the possibility that an artificial barrier would only delay the restoration of the calcium gradient, but later recovery would proceed normally. Previously,Welzel et al., 1996Welzel J. Wilhelm K.P. Wolff H.H. Skin permeability barrier and occlusion: no delay of repair in irritated human skin.Contact Dermatitis. 1996; 35: 163-168Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar reported that the barrier repair of human epidermis proceeds normally under occlusion for 24 h, following barrier disruption, whereas others have shown that artificial occlusion blocks the barrier repair responses in mice (Grubauer et al., 1989Grubauer G. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Transepidermal water loss; the signal for recovery of barrier structure and function.J Lipid Res. 1989; 30: 323-333Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar;Menon et al., 1994aMenon G.K. Elias P.M. Feingold K.R. Integrity of the permeability barrier is crucial for maintenance of the epidermal calcium gradient.Br J Dermatol. 1994; 130: 139-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar). A recent study from our laboratory found that TEWL did not recover in long-term occlusion (60 h in mice) (Jiang et al., 1998Jiang S.J. Koo S.W. Lee S.H. The morphologic changes in lamellar bodies and intercorneocyte lipids after tape stripping and occlusion with a water vapor-impermeable membrane.Arch Dermatol Res. 1998; 290: 145-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar). These findings may be caused basically by both time lag occlusion and differences between mice and humans. In conclusion, by prolonged occlusion with a water-vapor impermeable membrane after barrier disruption, we could induce prolonged epidermal calcium deprivation and an increase in transitional cells and observe the disappearance of transitional cells and nearly normalized epidermal calcium gradient by 60 h of occlusion. We think that our model may be used as an in vivo model in researching the interrelationship between transitional cells and calcium ions. We thank Dr G. K. Menon, Avon Products, for his helpful advice. This study was supported by a grant (KOSEF 98-0403-18-01-3) of the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation, Republic of Korea.
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