Change and Conflict in Contemporary Omani Society: The Case of Kafa'a in Marriage
2010; Routledge; Volume: 37; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13530191003794707
ISSN1469-3542
Autores Tópico(s)Islamic Finance and Banking Studies
ResumoAbstract This article explores the conflict between Omani traditional cultureFootnote1 and modern change by examining the practice of kafa'a Footnote2 in present-day Oman. kafa'a—which refers to the notion that the husband's family should be equal or superior in terms of social, religious or economic background to the wife's family if the marriage is to be accepted—exemplifies a type of social and legal inequality that is at odds with State rhetoric on equality but congruent with the type of hierarchical social structure traditionally valued by Omanis, which tolerates a high degree of inequality between individuals and groups. I argue that the recognition of kafa'a as a condition of marriage in Article 20 of the Omani Personal Status Law serves to, in effect, reinforce traditional tribal and religious cultural practices in Oman. 1 Bearing in mind the complexity of defining culture, it is defined in this article as what people in Oman think, value, believe and hold as ideas. Thus, culture in contemporary Omani society includes values that are derived from the long-established tribal and Ibadi religious institutions, social structural systems of life and behaviour. 2 In Arabic, kafa'a literally means ‘equality’. In Islamic legal terminology, kafa'a in marriage refers to the equivalence of the man and the woman, as defined by certain criteria. Specifically, an aspiring husband should be equal or superior to the proposed wife in terms of socio-economic status in order to be accepted as a suitable husband in marriage. In practice, therefore, kafa'a actually perpetuates and indeed promotes inequality between people because it legitimates discrimination against people judged to have lower socio-economic status. Further information on kafa'a in marriage and its legal and historical development in Islamic tradition can be viewed in Amalia Zomeno, ‘Kafa'a in the Maliki School: A Fatwa from Fifteenth Century Fez’, in R. Gleave and E. Kermeli (eds), Islamic Law: Theory and Practice (New York: IB Tauris, 1997), pp. 87–105; and Farhat J. Ziadeh, ‘Equality (Kafa'a) in Muslim Law of Marriage’, The American Journal of Comparative Law, 6(4) (1957), pp. 503–511. Notes 1 Bearing in mind the complexity of defining culture, it is defined in this article as what people in Oman think, value, believe and hold as ideas. Thus, culture in contemporary Omani society includes values that are derived from the long-established tribal and Ibadi religious institutions, social structural systems of life and behaviour. 2 In Arabic, kafa'a literally means ‘equality’. In Islamic legal terminology, kafa'a in marriage refers to the equivalence of the man and the woman, as defined by certain criteria. Specifically, an aspiring husband should be equal or superior to the proposed wife in terms of socio-economic status in order to be accepted as a suitable husband in marriage. In practice, therefore, kafa'a actually perpetuates and indeed promotes inequality between people because it legitimates discrimination against people judged to have lower socio-economic status. Further information on kafa'a in marriage and its legal and historical development in Islamic tradition can be viewed in Amalia Zomeno, ‘Kafa'a in the Maliki School: A Fatwa from Fifteenth Century Fez’, in R. Gleave and E. Kermeli (eds), Islamic Law: Theory and Practice (New York: IB Tauris, 1997), pp. 87–105; and Farhat J. Ziadeh, ‘Equality (Kafa'a) in Muslim Law of Marriage’, The American Journal of Comparative Law, 6(4) (1957), pp. 503–511. 3 Citations are extracted from six months of fieldwork in Muscat and parts of the al-Sarqiyya region of Oman in 2004/05. 4 Calvin H. Allen, Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate (London: Westview Press, 1987), p. 11. 5 Thus far, there are no specific figures to demonstrate the percentage of ethnic or religious groups in Oman. The 2003 Omani national census remained silent about mentioning the percentage of each of these groups. 6 Salim b. Hamud al-Syabi, al-’Inwan fi Tarikh Ahl ’Uman (Cairo: Matabi’ Sijil al-Arab, N.A.), pp. 1–15. 7 Further information on the early social and cultural diversity of Omani religious and tribal populations can be found in two important analyses: Tadeusz Lewicki, ‘The Ibadites in Arabia and Africa’, Journal of World History, XIII(1) (1971), pp. 3–80; and John C. Wilkinson ‘Arab settlement in Oman: The Origins and Development of the Tribal Pattern and its Relationship to the Imamate’ (PhD dissertation, Oxford University, 1970), pp. 40–86. 8 Ahmad ’Ubidali, Kashf al-Ghumma al-Jami'a li Akhbar al-Umma (Nicosia: Dalmun li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 1984), pp. 283–299. 9 Husin Ghanim Ghubash, Oman al-Dimukratiyya al-Islamiyya: Takalid al-Imama wa al-Tarikh al-Siyasi al-Hadith (1500–1970) (Beirut: Dar al-Jadid, 1997), pp. 44–45. 10 John E. Peterson, ‘Oman: al-Gafiryah and al-Hinawiyah Tribal Confederations’, 2003, www.JEPeterson.net (accessed 12 April 2004). 11 The tribal title of al-Busa‘idi appears to have witnessed changes since the late eighteenth century. The founder of the dynasty, Ahmad b. Sa‘id (d.1783) held the religious title of Imam. His family or tribal name is usually written al-Busa‘di, one word in the Arabic language. After the death of Ahmad b. Sa‘id, the al-Busa‘idi family selected the son of Imam Ahmad, Sai‘d b. Ahmad (r.1792), as successor. Sai‘d was the first ruler to carry the title Sayyid and Imam at the same time. Later on, the al-Busa‘idi family carried only the title Sayyid. This is an honorific title held by any member of the (al-Busa‘idi) royal family. With the passing of time the ruler now uses the title Sultan, which as Saeed observes implies ‘a purely coercive power that relinquished pretensions to spiritual authority’; see Abdullah Saeed, Islamic Thought: An Introduction (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 116. It appears that the royal family in Oman has distinguished the title of al-Busa‘di from Al-Sa‘id. The first is applied to relatively larger tribal, non-Al Sa‘id members found in a number of areas in Oman, whereas Al-Sa‘id is strictly applied to the members of the royal family. For further information on the establishment of Al-Sa‘id density, see Abdullah b. Humaid (Cairo: Matba’t al-Imam, n.d.), Tuhfat al-A'yan fi Sirat Ahl ’Uman, pp. 186–70. In this article I am using the title Al-Sa‘id, with a capital ‘A’ as it is currently used. 12 Details about the struggle for power between the sons of Sa‘id can be found in Robert Geran Landen, Oman since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), pp. 199–282. 13 Landen, Oman since 1856, pp. 321–339; and John C. Wilkinson, The Imamate Tradition of Oman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 235–242. 14 The struggle between the Imama and the Sultanate ruling systems dominated much of the politics of Oman from the late nineteenth century until about 1960. In 1920, with the intervention of British officials in Muscat, the father of Sultan Sa‘id, Sultan Taymur (r.1913–1932) and Imam al-Khalili (r.1914–1954) signed the treaty of al-Sib; a village between Muscat and the entrance to the interior of Oman. This agreement between the governments of the Imam and the Sultan established a peaceful coexistence between them with assurance from the tribes and Shaykhs of Oman that they would abstain from attacking Muscat and coastal towns. In reality, the agreement, as a number of authors have argued, divided the people of the interior and the coast, both socially and economically. Nonetheless, the relationship between Sultan Sa‘id and Imam al-Khalili was respectful and their amiable personal relationship facilitated the enjoyment of stability by the two communities in the interior and the coast. See J. E. Peterson, ‘Oman's Odyssey: From Imamate to Sultanate’, in B. R. Pridham (ed.), Oman: Economic, Social and Strategic Developments (London: Croom Helm 1987), pp. 1–15; and Carol J. Riphenburg, Oman: Political Development in a Changing World (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), pp. 39–49. 15 Landen, Oman since 1856, pp. 294–320. 16 Riphenburg, Oman, pp. 8–11. 17 Landen, Oman since 1856, pp. 79–176. Valeri discussed the cultural differences between Omanis who have African backgrounds and other Omanis in contemporary Oman. See Marc Valeri, ‘Nation-Building and Communities in Oman since 1970: The Swahili-Speaking Omani in Search of Identity’, African Affairs, 106(424) (2007), pp. 479–496. 18 Allen, Oman, pp. 12–14; and Landen, Oman since 1856, pp. 131–159. 19 Allen, Oman, pp. 12–14; and Riphenburg, Oman, pp. 8–11. 20 Calvin H. Allen and W. Lynn Rigsbee II, Oman under Qaboos: From Coup to Constitution 1970–1996 (London: Portland, 2000), pp. 99–100. 21 John C. Wilkinson, The Imamate Tradition of Oman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 269–270. 22 Ahmad al-Jarallah, ‘His Majesty the Sultan in a Wide-Ranging Interview to Kuwait's Al Siyassa Daily’, 2006, http://www.chamberoman.com/pdf/alghorfa_jan_feb06/special_interview.pdf (accessed 1 March 2006). 23 Nikolaus A. Siegfried, ‘Legislation and Legitimation in Oman: The Basic Law’, Islamic Law and Society, 7(3) (2000), pp. 359–397. In her analysis of changing political aspects of the Omani state, Chatty touched on some problematic issues related to the indigenous Omanis. See Dawn Chatty, ‘Rituals of Royalty and the Elaboration of Ceremony in Oman: View from the Edge’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 41 (2009), pp. 39–58. 24 See Human Rights Monitor Series, ‘Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 69th Session’, http://www.ishr.ch/hrm/tmb/treaty/cerd/reports/cerd_69/cerd_69_oman.pdf (accessed 10 June 2009). 25 Allen and Rigsbee II, Oman under Qaboos, pp. 34–62. 26 Allen and Rigsbee II, Oman under Qaboos, pp. 34–62, pp. 34–62; Riphenburg, Oman, pp. 66–70, Valeri, ‘Nation-Building and Communities’, pp. 479–496. 27 Valeri, ‘Nation-Building and Communities’, pp. 479–496. 28 Dale F. Eickelman, ‘Ibadism and the Sectarian Perspective’, in B. R. Pridham (ed.), Oman: Economic, Social and Strategic Development (London: Croom Helm, 1989), pp. 31–50; and John Townsend, The Making of Modern State (London: Croom Helm, 1977), pp. 31–50. 29 In July 1970, the current Sultan Qaboos b. Sa‘id b. Taymur Al-Sa‘id, with support from British officials in Oman and a number of Omani tribes, overthrew his father Sultan Sa‘id b. Taymur. Qaboos was 29 years old. His rule since then has been identified as a new era, ‘marked to a large part by the formation of Oman—as officially regarded—as a ‘modern State’ and a ‘new dawn’. This new era was, and has continued to be, constructed in direct opposition to the previous era. The new epoch conceptualizes its distinctiveness against ‘the supposed backwardness and isolation of the previous era’. This period is officially designated as (and repeatedly pronounced to be) the ‘Omani renaissance’ or ‘al-Nahda al-‘Umania. 30 Ishaq Al-Busa'idi, ‘al-Qada fi ’Uman Yajma’ bayn al-Shari'a wa al-Qanun’, 2007, http://www.omandaily.com/25/local/local6.htm (accessed 31 July 2007). 31 Saif al-Fadili, ‘Mufti al-Saltana li ’Uman bi-Mnasabat Yawm al-Nahda: Da'm Jalalat al-Sultan li al-Jawanib al-Diniyya ghir Mahdud’, Oman, 9551 (27 July 2007), p. 1. 32 The Institute was replaced by the Shari‘a and Law College in the beginning of the 2000. For further information on the mentioned Institute, see Harith M. al-Ghassany, ‘Kitman and Renaissance: Domination and the Limits of Development’ (PhD Dissertation, Harvard University, 1995), p. 45. 33 Unni Wikan, Behind the Veil in Arabia: Women in Oman (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), pp. 39–45. 34 At their request the names mentioned in this case are pseudonyms of the persons described in order to maintain their anonymity (this is the case throughout the article). 35 Quran 49:13. 38 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. 188/2004, decided 19 June 2004, pp. 1–3 36 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. 188/2004, decided 19 June 2004, pp. 1–3. 37 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. 188/2004, decided 19 June 2004, pp. 1–3 39 Ministry of Justice, Personal Status Law (Muscat: Mataba't al-Nahda, 1997), p. 7. 40 Ministry of Justice, Personal Status Law (Muscat: Mataba't al-Nahda, 1997), p. 7, p. 18. 41 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’ ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. N.A., decided 12 August 2002, pp. 1–3. 42 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’ ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. N.A., decided 12 August 2002, pp. 1–3 43 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’ ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. N.A., decided 12 August 2002, pp. 1–3 44 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’ ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. N.A., decided 12 August 2002, pp. 1–3 45 Muscat Preliminary Court. ‘Title: N.A.’ ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Preliminary Court, No. N.A., decided 12 August 2002, pp. 1–3 46 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4. 47 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4 48 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4 49 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4 50 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4 51 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4 52 Muscat Appeal Court. ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the Appeal Court, No: 85/2002, decided 14 September 2002, pp. 1–4 53 Allen and Rigsbee II, Oman under Qaboos, p. 216. 54 High Court, ‘Title: N.A.’, ed. Ministry of Justice: Security Office of the High Court, No. 45/2003, decided 7 June 2003, pp. 1–5. 56 High Court, ‘Title: N.A.’. 55 There is little agreement among Muslim jurists regarding the justification and application of kafa'a; in fact, the views of Muslim jurists were and are very diverse reflecting the varied social, cultural and economic reality of Muslims. Further details can be found in Abd al-Rahman al-Jaziri, Kitab al-Fiqh ‘ala al-Madhahib al-Arba'a, 3rd edition, Vol. 4 (Cairo: al-Maktaba al-Tijariyya al-Kubra, N.A.), p. 45; al-Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh al-Sunna, 8th edition, Vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-’Arabi, 1987), p. 136; Ziadeh, ‘Equality (Kafa'a) in the Muslim Law of Marriage’, pp. 503–511; and Zomeno, ‘Kafa'a in the Maliki School’, pp. 87–105. 57 High Court, ‘Title: N.A.’ 58 Ministry of Information, ‘The White Book’, 2002, http://www.omanet.om/english/government/basiclaw/overview.asp?cat = gov&subcat = blaw (accessed 31 May 2006). 59 Ministry of Information, ‘The White Book’, 2002, http://www.omanet.om/english/government/basiclaw/overview.asp?cat = gov&subcat = blaw (accessed 31 May 2006) 60 Ministry of Information, ‘The White Book’, 2002, http://www.omanet.om/english/government/basiclaw/overview.asp?cat = gov&subcat = blaw (accessed 31 May 2006) 61 Harold J. Berman, ‘The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State (Rechtsstaat): With Special Reference to the Soviet Union’, in Donald D. Barry (ed.), Toward the ’Rule of Law’ in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 164. 62 Harold J. Berman, ‘The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State (Rechtsstaat): With Special Reference to the Soviet Union’, in Donald D. Barry (ed.), Toward the ’Rule of Law’ in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 164 63 Allen and Rigsbee II, Oman under Qaboos, p. 222. 64 Siegfried, ‘Legislation and Legitimation in Oman’, pp. 359–397. 65 Ministry of Information, ‘The White Book’; and Siegfried, ‘Legislation and Legitimation in Oman’, pp. 359–397. 66 Ministry of Information, ‘The White Book’; and Siegfried, ‘Legislation and Legitimation in Oman’, pp. 359–397 67 Ministry of Justice, Mujalad al-Tashri'at, pp. 17–66. 68 There is no Constitutional Court in Oman thus far. 69 The decree did not include the Public Prosecutor and the Administrative Court. The first was put under the supervision of the Oman Royal Police and the latter under the supervision of the Royal Diwan (Court). 70 Sa'id b. Khalaf al-Kharusi, ‘Nahkum bi al-Shari'a wa lisat Ladyna Qawanin Maktuba’, al-‘Alam al-Islami (London) 409 (1991), p. 33; and Ministry of Justice, Mujalad al-Tashri'at, pp. 17–66. 71 Some writers tend to distinguish between judges who deal with Shari‘a Law, referring to them as ‘qadi’ or ‘qadis’, and judges who deal with other laws, as ‘judges’. In this paper I prefer the term ‘Shari‘a judge’ or ‘judges’. 76 The Mufti of Oman issued a fatwa that men should not wear long-sleeved dishdasha, the Omani national dress for men, since long sleeves are a sign of arrogance. 77 al-Sulimi, Kaif Takhtarin Zawjak, p. 9. 72 Tahiya b. Zahran al-Sulimi, Kaif Takhtarin Zawjak (Muscat: Maktabat al-Damri li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2001), pp. 1–94. 73 Tahiya b. Zahran al-Sulimi, Kaif Takhtarin Zawjak (Muscat: Maktabat al-Damri li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2001), pp. 1–94, p. 3. 74 Tahiya b. Zahran al-Sulimi, Kaif Takhtarin Zawjak (Muscat: Maktabat al-Damri li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2001), pp. 1–94, p. 3. 75 Tahiya b. Zahran al-Sulimi, Kaif Takhtarin Zawjak (Muscat: Maktabat al-Damri li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2001), pp. 1–94, p. 7. 78 Interestingly, al-Salimi also believed that a person's social status might elevate over time. So a disparate person might, at a certain time, become equal (kuf) to someone to whom he was not equal to before. See Limbert, ‘Marriage, Status and the Politics of Nationality in Oman’, in The Gulf Family: Kinship Policies and Modernity (London: [Sdot]aqi in association with London Middle East Institute, SOAS, 2007), pp. 167–168. 80 ’Abd al-Hamid al-Jami'y, ‘al-Kafa'a’ (Unpublished Script, Muscat, 2003), pp. 323–324. 79 ’Abd al-Hamid b. Humid al-Jami'y, al-Kafa'a wa al-Mashru’ al-Ilahi fi al-‘Alam (Beirut: al-Fikr al-’Arabi 2003), pp. 208–233. 81 ’Abd al-Hamid al-Jami'y, ‘al-Kafa'a’ (Unpublished Script, Muscat, 2003), pp. 323–324, pp. 315–318. 82 ’Abd al-Hamid al-Jami'y, ‘al-Kafa'a’ (Unpublished Script, Muscat, 2003), pp. 323–324, p. 315. 83 ’Abd al-Hamid al-Jami'y, ‘al-Kafa'a’ (Unpublished Script, Muscat, 2003), pp. 323–324, p. 324. 84 Al-Jami'y, al-Kafa'a wa al-Mashru’ al-Ilahi fi al-‘Alam, p. 22. 85 Ibid. 86 Ibid., pp. 27–126. 87 See, for instance, al-Majara al-Islamiyya, ‘al-Tabaqiyya wa al-’Unsuriyya wa Talaku’ ’Ulama’ al-Ibadiyya min al-Naqd’, 2003, www.almajara.com/bb/viewtopic.php?topic = 2044&forum = 1&start = 80&119 (accessed 1 January 2004); Sablat al-’Arab, ‘al-Kitab al-Adi Ar'ada al-Kathiryn: al-Kafa'a wa al-Mashru’ al-Ilahi fi al- ’Alam’, 2003, http://www.omania.net/avb/showthread.php?t = 91575&page = 2 (accessed 5 October 2006); and Omani Student Society, ‘Discriminations and Racism in Oman’, 2005, http://www.ossv.org/showflat.php?Cat = &Number = 6029&page = 0&view = collapsed&sb = 5&o = &fpart = 1 (accessed 12 April 2005). 88 See, for instance, al-Majara al-Islamiyya, ‘al-Tabaqiyya wa al-’Unsuriyya wa Talaku’ ’Ulama’ al-Ibadiyya min al-Naqd’, 2003, www.almajara.com/bb/viewtopic.php?topic = 2044&forum = 1&start = 80&119 (accessed 1 January 2004); Sablat al-’Arab, ‘al-Kitab al-Adi Ar'ada al-Kathiryn: al-Kafa'a wa al-Mashru’ al-Ilahi fi al- ’Alam’, 2003, http://www.omania.net/avb/showthread.php?t = 91575&page = 2 (accessed 5 October 2006); and Omani Student Society, ‘Discriminations and Racism in Oman’, 2005, http://www.ossv.org/showflat.php?Cat = &Number = 6029&page = 0&view = collapsed&sb = 5&o = &fpart = 1 (accessed 12 April 2005) 89 See, for instance, al-Majara al-Islamiyya, ‘al-Tabaqiyya wa al-’Unsuriyya wa Talaku’ ’Ulama’ al-Ibadiyya min al-Naqd’, 2003, www.almajara.com/bb/viewtopic.php?topic = 2044&forum = 1&start = 80&119 (accessed 1 January 2004); Sablat al-’Arab, ‘al-Kitab al-Adi Ar'ada al-Kathiryn: al-Kafa'a wa al-Mashru’ al-Ilahi fi al- ’Alam’, 2003, http://www.omania.net/avb/showthread.php?t = 91575&page = 2 (accessed 5 October 2006); and Omani Student Society, ‘Discriminations and Racism in Oman’, 2005, http://www.ossv.org/showflat.php?Cat = &Number = 6029&page = 0&view = collapsed&sb = 5&o = &fpart = 1 (accessed 12 April 2005) 90 See, for instance, al-Majara al-Islamiyya, ‘al-Tabaqiyya wa al-’Unsuriyya wa Talaku’ ’Ulama’ al-Ibadiyya min al-Naqd’, 2003, www.almajara.com/bb/viewtopic.php?topic = 2044&forum = 1&start = 80&119 (accessed 1 January 2004); Sablat al-’Arab, ‘al-Kitab al-Adi Ar'ada al-Kathiryn: al-Kafa'a wa al-Mashru’ al-Ilahi fi al- ’Alam’, 2003, http://www.omania.net/avb/showthread.php?t = 91575&page = 2 (accessed 5 October 2006); and Omani Student Society, ‘Discriminations and Racism in Oman’, 2005, http://www.ossv.org/showflat.php?Cat = &Number = 6029&page = 0&view = collapsed&sb = 5&o = &fpart = 1 (accessed 12 April 2005) 91 See, for instance, Hamid al-Balushi, ‘al-Tamyyz al-’Unsuri fi ’Uman: Haqiqa Waqi'a am Mufta'ala’, 2007, http://www.farrq.net/forums/showthread.php?t = 710 (accessed 2 August 2007); and Salim al-Tuwayya, ‘Lajnat Tashih Musamayyat al-Qabai'l wa al-Alqab wa al-Asma’, 2007, http://www.farrq.net/forums/showthread.php?t = 137 (accessed 20 January 2007). 92 Fayza al-Hymali, ‘Mujtama'na al-’Umani wa al-Tafkir al-Mutakhalif’, 2007, http://www.farrq.net/forums/showthread.php?t = 726 (accessed 2 August 2007). 93 Fayza al-Hymali, ‘Mujtama'na al-’Umani wa al-Tafkir al-Mutakhalif’, 2007, http://www.farrq.net/forums/showthread.php?t = 726 (accessed 2 August 2007) 94 Fayza al-Hymali, ‘Mujtama'na al-’Umani wa al-Tafkir al-Mutakhalif’, 2007, http://www.farrq.net/forums/showthread.php?t = 726 (accessed 2 August 2007) 95 Valentine M. Moghadam, Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003), p. 99. 96 Hans Haferkamp and Neil J. Smelser, ‘Social Change and Modernity’, 1992, http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6000078s/ (accessed 2 August 2007).
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