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Representing the New China and the Sovietisation of Chinese sport (1949–1962)

2012; Routledge; Volume: 29; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09523367.2012.634982

1743-9035

Fan Hong, Lu Zhouxiang,

Sports, Gender, and Society

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes on contributors Fan Hong is Professor in Chinese Studies and Head of the School of Asian Studies at University College Cork, Ireland. Her main research interests are in the areas of culture, politics, gender and sport. Lu Zhouxiang is Lecturer in Chinese Studies in the School of Modern Languages, Literatures and Cultures at National University of Ireland Maynooth. His research interests focus on sports management; comparative studies between the West and China in the field of sport, nationalism and globalism. Notes 1. The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party of China between 1927 and 1949. The first stage of the war began with the outbreak of the Nanchang Uprising on 1 August 1927 and lasted for 10 years until the full-scale Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937. Facing the Japanese invasion, both sides suspended the war and officially formed a united front in September 1937 to fight against the Japanese. After the end of the Second World War, the civil war was resumed in 1946. On 21 April 1949, the Communist army captured Nanjing, capital of the Republic of China. The Nationalist Party (KMT) retreated to Taiwan. 2. Jing, The History of the People's Republic of China. 3. Bai, An Outline History of China. 4. Maddison, The World Economy, 1: 263. 5. Liu, Yang, and Zhang, The Map of the People's Republic of China; Yan, Yan Chongnian Explains the History of the Qing Dynasty. 6. Catherine Mulbrandon, . 'Share of GDP: China, India, Japan, Latin America, Western Europe, United States', Visualising Economics, http://www.visualizingeconomics.com/?s=World+GDP (accessed 8 October 2010). 7. Hou, 'Chinese Population in the First Half of the 20th Century'. 8. Coal production had grown from 30 million tons in 1949 to 63 million tons in 1952; the output of grain reached 163,900,000 tons breaking the previous record. See Jing, The History of the People's Republic of China. 9. Ness and Raichur, 'Dilemmas of Socialist Development', 10. 10. Ibid. 11. Meng, 'Debates on the Definition of the Term "Sport"', 12. 12. Feng, 'Discussions on People's Sport', 4. 13. All-China Sports Federation, `General Statutes of the All-China Sports Federation', 1. 14. Mao, 'Popularize Mass Sport, Build up People's Physical Strength', 1. 15. Tang, China at the Olympic Games 2: 3. 16. `Liste Des Membres DU C.I.O.', 5. 17. Tang, China at the Olympic Games. 18. The Berlin Blockade was one of the first major international crises of the cold war. During the multinational occupation of Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway and road access to the sectors of Berlin under their control from June 1948. Their objective was to control the city. In response, the Western Allies used their air force to carry supplies to West Berlin. The blockade was considered as a failure and was lifted in May 1949. 19. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed in April 1949. NATO was convinced that the Communist countries were creating a dangerous force that might threaten the peace in Europe. In response, the organisation developed a Long-Term Defence Plan and created about 35 divisions in Europe. West Germany joined NATO in 1955. The Communist countries in Europe responded by entering into the Warsaw Pact and thus stepped up the cold war. 20. Fan and Xiong, 'Communist China'. 21. ACSF, 'Telegram to Deputy Mayor of Helsinki and the Secretariat of the IOC', National Sports Bureau Archives, 1952, 69. 22. Tan and Li, 'Body, Personality and National Identity', 2. 23. Fu, The History of Sport in China. 24. Tang, China at the Olympic Games 2: 10. 25. Tang, China at the Olympic Games (Vol) 2. 26. Ibid. 27. Tang, China at the Olympic Games 2: 11. 28. Ibid. 29. Hao, 'Chinese Athletes at the Fifth Olympic Games', 17. 30. Hao, 'The Battle in Helsinki', 54. 31. The Five Star Red Flag is the National Flag of the PRC. 32. Hao, 'Chinese Athletes at the Fifteenth Olympic Games'. 33. Literature Research Centre of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Mao Zedong's Literatures 1: 266. 34. Wu, The History of Sport of the PRC, 49. 35. After the establishment of the SPCSC the ACSF was superseded. 36. China Sports Daily, 20 May, 2009. 37. He, 'Sport in the Soviet Union', 5. 38. Sports Ministry, 'Labour Defence System of the People's Republic of China', 165. 39. The Ready for Labour and Defence programme (in Russian: Gotov k trudu i oborone – GTO) was introduced by the USSR in 1931. See Riordan, Sport under Communism, 25. 40. Wu, The History of Sport in the People's Republic of China. 41. Zhou, 'Practice the Body for the Mother Country', 1. 42. Sports Ministry, 'Labor Defence System of the People's Republic of China'. 43. The Policy Research Centre of the Sports Ministry, Policy Documents for Sport (1949—1981), 353. 44. All-China Federation of Trade Unions, 'The Instruction of Promoting Sport in Industry Sectors', 1. 45. Ibid. 46. Mao, 'Consolidate the Solidarity of the Party, Continue the Tradition of the Party', 293. 47. Editorial Team of the Yearbook of Chinese Sport, Yearbook of Chinese Sport (1949–1991) Vol. 1. 48. Fu, The History of Sport in China. 49. Ibid. 50. Wu, The History of Sport of the PRC. 51. Editorial Team of the Yearbook of Chinese Sport, Yearbook of Chinese Sport (1949–1962). 52. Xinhao Huang, 'Win Honor for The Contry – An Interview with Chen Jingkai', China Sport Daily, 5 July 2007. 53. Ibid. 54. Guo, 'Weightlifting', 7. 55. See China Pictorial, no. 1 (1958). 56. Hao, 'Hao Gengsheng's Memoir', 58. 57. There were three Chinese Olympic Committee members at that time: Dong Shouyi, Wang Zhengting and Kong Xiangxi. Kong Xiangxi emigrated to the United States in 1947. Dong Shouyi stayed in Mainland China after the establishment of the PRC and became amember of the ACSF. Wang Zhengting emigrated to Hong Kong in 1949. 58. Hao, 'Hao Gengsheng's Memoir', 58. 59. `Liste Des Membres DU C.I.O.', 4. 60. The Documents and the Relevant Meeting Reports with the 50th IOC Executive Board, National Sports Bureau Archives, (70) (1955). 61. Wang and Zhang, China and the Olympics, 313. 62. All-China Athletic Federation, 'A Letter to Sport Organizations and Athletes in Taiwan', 7 September 1956, 1. 63. Minute of the Meeting of the Executive Board of the IOC, Melbourne, 17 November 1956, Brundage Papers, Box 91; Espy, The Politics of the Olympic Games, 45. 64. Zhang, 'Law vs. Facts'. 65. Tang, China at the Olympic Games (Vol) 2. 66. IOC Archives, République Populaire de Chine, juridique, 1947–1975, folder Peking: 1952–1958. 67. Tung, 'Tung Shou-yi's Letter to IOC President Brundage', 23 April 1958. Cited in Tang, China at the Olympic Games (Vol) 2: 149. 68. Tung, 'Tung Shou-yi's Letter to IOC President Brundage', 19 August 1958. Cited in Tang, China at the Olympic Games (Vol) 2: 136. 69. IOC Archives, République Populaire de Chine, juridique, 1947–1975, folder. Peking: 1952–1958. 70. The International Swimming Federation (FINA), Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), International Weightlifting Federation (IWF), The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), International Basketball Federation (IBF), International Gymnastics Federation(FIG), The International Shooting Sport Federation (ISSF), The International Wrestling Association (IWA) and the International Cycling Union (UCI). 71. Chinese Olympic Committee, 'The Statement of the Chinese Olympic Committee (All-China Athletic Federation) on Severing Relations With the International Olympic Committee'. 72. Sports Ministry, 'A Proposal against International Sports Federation's Attitude Towards the "two Chinas" [issue]', National Sports Bureau Archives, 1958, 127. 73. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, 'Formulation of Foreign Policy of New China on the Eve of its Birth', 17 November 2000, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/ziliao/3602/3604/t18057.htm (accessed 10 October 2010). 74. 'Common Programme of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference', The Inaugural Session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, September 1949. 75. The World Festival of Youth and Students was jointly organised by the World Federation of Democratic Youth and the International Union of Students from 1947. It included cultural, sport and political activities. During the cold war, the festivals became a powerful tool that bound socialist countries together. The second Festival was held in Budapest in August 1949. 20,000 young people from 82 countries took part in the event. The Festival expressed its support for the 'anti-colonialist struggle' in Indonesia, Malaysia and French Indochina and the 'anti-fascist struggle' in Spain and Greece. 76. The World Student Congress was organised by the International Union of Students (IUS), a worldwide non-partisan association founded in Prague in 1946. Due to the Communist flavour of the IUS, several non-Communist members withdrew their membership in the following years. During the cold War, the iUS was seen as a communist front by the capitalist camp led by the United States. 77. Fu, The History of Sport in China. 78. The Fourth World Festival of Youth and Students took place in Bucharest, the capital of Romania, in August 1953. One hundred and eleven countries participated in the Festival. A total of 4,366 Athletes from 54 countries participated in the sports events during the Festival. The event was held at the height of the cold war. In the United States, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, two American communists, were executed by the US government in 1953 for conspiracy to commit espionage. In Asia, the Korean War, the first major proxy war in the cold war, had just been brought to a halt with a compromise on both sides. In Vietnam and Algeria, communist movements began to gather momentum. Against such a background, the Festival turned into anti-war demonstrations and was seen by the capitalist camp as a powerful tool to propagandise and support communism. 79. The first official World University Games was organised by the Confédération Internationale des Étudiants in 1924. Due to the cold war, the Games split into two events in 1947. The Summer International University Sports Weeks, organised by the Fédération Internationale du Sport Universitaire (FISU), were held in West European countries. The World Student Games, organised by the Union Internationale des Étudiants (UIE), were held in Socialist countries in East Europe between 1947 and 1962. 80. 'Chinese Soccer in the Past 60 Years', Soccer Weekly 385, no. 35 (2009): 64–65. 81. Zhou, 'China's Diplomacy and Foreign Communication in Sports'. 82. Jing, The History of the People's Republic of China. 83. Rodzinski, The Walled Kingdom, 403. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 86. 'The Great Creed to Build Socialist Countryside'. People's Daily, 27 November 1957. 87. Guo, The History of The People's Republic of China (1949–1993). 88. Ibid. 89. Sports Ministry, `Reports on the Ten-Year Guidelines for Sports Development', 2. 90. Ibid, 2. 91. Ibid, 4. 92. Sports Ministry, 'Suggestions on the Implementation of the Ten-Year Guidelines for Sports Development (1958–1967)'. 93. Ten sports were identified by the Sports Ministry as key sports. They were: basketball, volleyball, soccer, table tennis, track and field, gymnastics, weightlifting, swimming, skating and shooting. 94. Zhang, 'Prepare for the National Games', 4. 95. Fu, The History of Sport in China, 179. 96. The Central Government, 'The Central Government's Instruction on Sport', 1. 97. People's Daily, 14 September 1959; Editorial Team of the Yearbook of Chinese Sport, Yearbook of Chinese Sport (1949–1962). 98. The Organizing Committee for the First National Games. 'Poster for the First National Games'. 99. Editorial Team of the Yearbook of Chinese Sport, Yearbook of Chinese Sport (1949–1962). 100. Xinhua News Agency, 'Review the Achievements in Sport in the Past 10 Years. The First National Games was Launched', People's Daily, 14 September 1959. 101. Huang, Mao, and Wu, 'The Historical Development of Chinese Group Callisthenics'. 102. General Administration of Sport of the People's Republic of China and the Organizing Committee of the 10th National Games of the People's Republic of China, The 10 National Games of China, 22. 103. Zhang, 'The First National Games', 28. 104. Editorial Team of the Yearbook of Chinese Sport, Yearbook of Chinese Sport (1949–1962). 105. Rodzinski, The Walled Kingdom, 406. 106. One of the reasons for the decrease in actual harvests is that a large number of peasants joined the steel campaign and failed to harvest crops in time. 107. Jing, The History of the People's Republic of China, 84. 108. Guo, Wang, and Geng, The History of The People's Republic of China, 122. 109. 2nd Literature Research Centre of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, The History of Sport in China – 100 Interviews. 110. Ibid. 111. Ibid., 168. 112. Ibid., 171.